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What effect does the dexamethasone challenge have on healthy individuals compared to depressed individuals?
What effect does the dexamethasone challenge have on healthy individuals compared to depressed individuals?
What is suggested about non-responders to dexamethasone after treatment with antidepressants?
What is suggested about non-responders to dexamethasone after treatment with antidepressants?
In the context of animal cognitive testing, what are some of the major areas of focus?
In the context of animal cognitive testing, what are some of the major areas of focus?
Which cognitive process involves both explicit and implicit forms?
Which cognitive process involves both explicit and implicit forms?
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Which of the following tests is NOT commonly used to assess anxiogenic or anxiolytic drugs in animals?
Which of the following tests is NOT commonly used to assess anxiogenic or anxiolytic drugs in animals?
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What is included in the category of physical landmarks for developmental milestones in rodents?
What is included in the category of physical landmarks for developmental milestones in rodents?
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Which of the following is NOT considered a locomotor behavior milestone in rodents?
Which of the following is NOT considered a locomotor behavior milestone in rodents?
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What does the negative geotaxis reflex help assess in rodents?
What does the negative geotaxis reflex help assess in rodents?
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Which measure is typically used to assess parental and social behaviors in rodents?
Which measure is typically used to assess parental and social behaviors in rodents?
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Which assay method would most likely involve hormonal manipulation to study parenting behaviors?
Which assay method would most likely involve hormonal manipulation to study parenting behaviors?
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What is assessed through food preference tests in motivation assays?
What is assessed through food preference tests in motivation assays?
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In developmental assessments, what is the significance of knowing the average and range of response age?
In developmental assessments, what is the significance of knowing the average and range of response age?
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What role do cortical regions play in motor behavior?
What role do cortical regions play in motor behavior?
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Which reflex is tested using a vertical screen test in rodents?
Which reflex is tested using a vertical screen test in rodents?
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Which sampling methodology involves focusing on specific behaviors?
Which sampling methodology involves focusing on specific behaviors?
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What does the term 'one-zero sampling' refer to?
What does the term 'one-zero sampling' refer to?
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How is behavior defined in the provided content?
How is behavior defined in the provided content?
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What is the primary function of the cerebellum in motor behavior?
What is the primary function of the cerebellum in motor behavior?
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What do the terms 'motivation' and 'emotion' share in their etymology?
What do the terms 'motivation' and 'emotion' share in their etymology?
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What aspect does 'Universal Grammar' of movements refer to?
What aspect does 'Universal Grammar' of movements refer to?
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What is a characteristic of 'scan or time sampling'?
What is a characteristic of 'scan or time sampling'?
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What does latent inhibition refer to in the context of learning?
What does latent inhibition refer to in the context of learning?
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Which maze is specifically known for testing spatial learning and memory?
Which maze is specifically known for testing spatial learning and memory?
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What type of learning is characterized by the presence or absence of stimuli in detection learning?
What type of learning is characterized by the presence or absence of stimuli in detection learning?
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Which of the following is NOT a model used for preclinical studies of neurological disorders?
Which of the following is NOT a model used for preclinical studies of neurological disorders?
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In the context of learning types, what does 'matching-to-sample' specifically refer to?
In the context of learning types, what does 'matching-to-sample' specifically refer to?
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What is one advantage of the simple-system approach in behavioral sciences?
What is one advantage of the simple-system approach in behavioral sciences?
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Which of the following is NOT a concern when using the simple-system approach?
Which of the following is NOT a concern when using the simple-system approach?
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In behavioral neuroscience, what is an ethogram primarily used for?
In behavioral neuroscience, what is an ethogram primarily used for?
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What does the term 'sociogram' refer to in the study of behaviors?
What does the term 'sociogram' refer to in the study of behaviors?
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Which principle is critical for ensuring consistency in behavioral observations between different observers?
Which principle is critical for ensuring consistency in behavioral observations between different observers?
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What does the '3 little P's' framework in neuroscience refer to?
What does the '3 little P's' framework in neuroscience refer to?
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In the context of behavior studies, what is the primary focus of longitudinal studies?
In the context of behavior studies, what is the primary focus of longitudinal studies?
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What is a common challenge when creating operational definitions of behavior?
What is a common challenge when creating operational definitions of behavior?
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What type of behavior is characterized by actions such as hissing, spitting, and submissiveness?
What type of behavior is characterized by actions such as hissing, spitting, and submissiveness?
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Which of the following is an example of classical conditioning?
Which of the following is an example of classical conditioning?
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What does sensitization refer to in the context of learned responses?
What does sensitization refer to in the context of learned responses?
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In which type of conditioning would 'active avoidance' occur?
In which type of conditioning would 'active avoidance' occur?
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Which of the following behaviors is indicative of anxiety during certain tasks?
Which of the following behaviors is indicative of anxiety during certain tasks?
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What type of learning involves adapting behavior based on the stimulus properties of hormones?
What type of learning involves adapting behavior based on the stimulus properties of hormones?
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What is the primary focus of affective (emotion) and conative (motivation) behaviors?
What is the primary focus of affective (emotion) and conative (motivation) behaviors?
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What is a characteristic of conditioned compensatory response?
What is a characteristic of conditioned compensatory response?
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Study Notes
Methodologies in Behavioural Sciences and Neuroscience
- Methodologies in behavioural sciences and neuroscience are explored in the study of behaviour.
Simple-System Approach
- Simple behaviours used as indices or markers
- Advantages: Parsimony, ease of replication, and quantification. Reductionistic approach.
- Disadvantages: Missing subtle interactions, and operational/ostensive definitions that lead to meaningless statements.
- Examples: "Rats behaved more," "Animals were more active."
Simple-System Approach: Challenges
- Questions about the approach include:
- Is it easy to determine if the behaviour is present or not?
- Is the quantification of occurrences or frequencies sufficient?
- Is the expression of the behaviour properly measured?
- Is intensity a factor to consider?
- Are there other modulations of behaviour to consider?
The 3 Little P's (Fentress, 1988)
- This framework explores the process, pattern, and phenotype in the study of behaviour.
- Process: Organism (straw house) X Environment
- Pattern: Event A (stick house) X Event B (brick house)
- Phenotype: Genes X Experience/Environment
Study of Individual Behavioural Patterns
- Behavioural neuroscience, specifically clinical/medical neurosciences, has unique characteristics compared to other behavioral sciences and neurosciences.
- Direct observations are common, often idiographic, longitudinal, and descriptive.
- Patterns of behavior, whether stereotyped or not, are of particular interest.
Ethograms, Sociograms/Sociomatrices
- Ethogram: A comprehensive inventory and catalog of all behavior patterns within a species. They focus on the form of behavior to study sequences.
- The brain acts as a sequencer of movements/motor actions
- Sociograms: Similar to ethograms, but specifically for social behaviors.
- Ostensive definitions are often used, including detailed descriptions, examples, visual aids, to define behaviours to ensure consistency. This can be challenging for inter-rater reliability.
Studying Behaviour Patterns: Ethograms
- Steps involved in studying behaviour patterns using ethograms include:
- Choosing the species.
- Selecting individuals or groups.
- Choosing the behaviours or signs.
- Selecting measures.
- Choosing sampling rules.
- Choosing recording rules.
Consistency >> Reliability
- Intra-observer consistency/reliability: One observer uses the same method over time.
- Inter-observer consistency/reliability: More than one observer uses the same method; high consistency for high reliability.
- Consistency guarantees replicability.
Define the Behaviour's Boundaries
- Focuses on the segmentation and clustering of behaviours.
- "Bout": a segment/portion/part of behaviour, derived from French word 'un bout.'
- Temporal and spatial boundaries of behaviours need to be precisely defined.
- Clusters of behaviors, actions or events.
Measures of Tendency (FOLD)
- Frequencies: Ratio of occurrences within a fixed amount of time; examples are number of pecks per minute.
- Occurrences: Ratio of occurrences across trials, bouts, or sequences; examples are number of pecks per sequence.
- Latencies: Time between events, states, actions; reaction times. Time for an occurrence.
- Durations: Time a particular event requires. Duration of a single occurrence, total duration, and duration as a proportion or percentage of total time.
Measures of Intensity
- Various operational or ostensive definitions are possible.
Measures of Spatio-Temporal Configuration: Sequences
- Measures of how behaviours are configured over time and space. This includes details like the frequency of elements, and ordering in sequences.
- Includes problems like the Lashley serial order problem.
Kinematics/Dynamics
- Velocity (v)
- Distance (d)
- Time (t)
- Acceleration (a)
- Relevant formulas: d= vt, d = vi + 1/2 at^2, vf = vi + 2at
Sequential Analysis: Methodology and Issues
- Objective: Identifying behavioral patterns (spatio-temporal).
- Randomness: 0% predictability
- Stochastic: > 0% but < 100% predictability
- Deterministic: 100% predictability
- Quantitative tools: Markovian analysis, Information theory analysis, log-linear analysis, time-series analysis.
Corollaries
- How important is the serial order of behaviour? (Lashley, 1951)
- Addressing temporal and spatial structure of sequences is crucial.
- How do preceding events impact current or upcoming events?
- Transitional probabilities (matrices and diagrams)
- Frequencies of trigrams, tetragrams, pentagrams, etc., are relevant.
Stochastic Processes
- Information theory
- Markov chains
- Basic steps:
- Identifying monograms (types of behaviors).
- Counting the frequency of these behaviors.
- Examples using behaviour sequence AABAABABAABAAABAB:
- Behaviour A: 11 times
- Behaviour B: 6 times
Step 1: Monograms
- Behaviour sequence: AABAABABAABAAABAB
- Behaviour A: 11
- Behaviour B: 6
Step 2: Digrams and Transition Matrices
- Sequence: AABAABABAABAAABAB
- Matrix:
- A B
- A | 5 | 6
- B | 5 | 0
Step 3: Trigrams
- Sequence: AABAABABAABAAABAB
- Examples:
- AAA: 1
- AAB: 4
- ABA: 5
- BAA: 3
Step N...
- Tetragrams: Example AAAA, AAAB, AABA...
- Pentagrams: Example AAAAA, AAAAB...
- Many analyses stop with digrams because of the understanding that previous events influence current and upcoming events.
- Patterns start to emerge.
Interpretation 1
- Predictive value: patterns? structure?
- Behavioural patterns as indicators of neural patterns.
- Also: FAPs, MAPs, and other pre-programmed motor patterns.
- Universal grammar of movements.
- Contextual analysis: searching for meaning in behaviour (e.g., chickadees communicating).
- Questions about motor cognition (frontal lobes) and sequence learning are raised.
Interpretation 2
- Motor signatures: higher cognitive dimension (planning, optimization of movements, problem solving).
- Cortical regions: higher cognitive dimension.
- Cerebellum: timing, 3D adjustments, fine repetitive behaviours.
- Basal ganglia: sequencing (innate or habit learning).
Sampling: Who or What is Observed and When?
- Ad libitum sampling: "whoever", "whatever", "whenever."
- Behaviour/event sampling: focus on specific behaviours.
- Scan/time sampling: focus on specific time intervals.
- Focal/individual sampling: focus on one individual.
Time Sampling: How is the Behaviour Recorded and/or Scored?
- Continuous recording: all occurrences.
- Instantaneous sampling: behavior occurring at a specific moment? (yes/no)
- Types include point sampling and fixed interval sampling.
- One-zero sampling: is behaviour happening now? (yes/no). Subtypes (convenience, fixed time, random time sampling)
The Microstructure of Behaviour
- This section explores the intricacies of behaviour's detailed structure.
What is Behaviour?
- Behaviour involves changes in time and space.
- Motion or action is central.
- Changes in nervous/endocrine system are proximate causes.
- Terminologies like motivation, emotions, hormones all relate to "motion."
The Linguistic and Musical Metaphors
- Language and music (time and space, like dance) relate to behaviour.
- Some linguistic and musical principles apply to behaviours as stochastic processes.
The Linguistic Metaphor
- Linguist metaphor (from semiotics) is crucial in ethology and neuroethology,
- Syntax (grammar): predictability/patterns/rules
- Semantics: meaning
- Pragmatics: social context
- Prosody: amplitude/intensity
- Question: Is the musical metaphor more appropriate?
The Expression of Behaviour: The Musical Metaphor
- Melody: sequential organization of behaviors; variations/intensity
- Rhythm: temporal organization, patterns, durations
- Harmony: combinatorial organization, coordination/progression
- Trends: sonification of data to musification of data via sound/music.
- Detection of patterns.
Stochastic Processes
- Probabilities in time, dynamic probabilities, transitional probabilities.
- Typical approaches: Markov chains, information theory, time series analysis.
- Using transition matrices for digrams, trigrams, and tetragrams.
The Diversity of Serial Patterns
- Common mistake: assuming behaviour patterns are static and non-dynamic.
- "Prosody" and linguistic metaphor are key considerations.
- Behavioural pattern examples:
- A always followed by random string, but (a) low intensity is followed 78% of time by BB; (b) A (long duration) is followed 78% of time by BB; (c) A (different tone) is followed 45% of time by C.
Other Factors
- Endogenous factors: metabolism, motivational status, reproductive status, immune system integrity, etc.
- Exogenous factors: stimulus duration/intensity, context/situation, physical context, and social context, etc
Sequences 1
- Simple sequence of mutually exclusive events. Reciprocations (alternating events) are in string 1; perseverations (repeating events) are in string 2.
Sequences 2
- Behavioural events can be discrete but often overlap/temporally spaced: 1. Overlaps; 2. Gaps.
Sequences 3
- Temporal and spatial "invasions" in behavioural events: 1. Overshadowing; 2. Encapsulation.
Sequences 4
- Sizes and shapes of circles represent 1. Intensity, amplitude, magnitude (vertical); 2. Duration (time) (horizontal)
Sequences 5
- Ambiguous events or ambiguous flow of events; 1. Dimensional ambiguity (fuzziness; dashed boundaries); 2. Categorical ambiguity (uncertain identity, e.g., white or grey?); 3. Transitional ambiguity (under-defined boundaries).
Sequences 6
- Very deterministic patterns can exist within sequences that show randomness.
Sequences 7
- Parallelism between two body parts (head & tail), with synchrony (1) or asynchrony (2), demonstrated by a diagram.
Sequences 8
- Reality is complex. Everything is a bit of everything.
Categories of Behaviour
- Observational data (natural behaviours): measures of latency, frequency, duration, intensity and sequencing.
- Learning and cognitive tests: used for testing perceptual and cognitive abilities (perception, memory, decision-making, problem solving, etc).
- States (such as emotions) can be measured using electrophysiological measures (GSR, ECG, etc.) of autonomic nervous system activity.
Clusters (Categories) of Behavioural Assays
- Simple-general—simple reflexes (eye blink, stretch, knee jerk); postures (standing, sitting); locomotion (walking, running); activity levels
- Simple-specific—species-specific (innate/instinctive behaviours), simple/complex action sequences
- Acquired behaviours—reflex/startle/orienting responses, habituation, sensitization, and conditioning (classical/Pavlovian/respondent/type I, instrumental/Skinnerian/operant/type II)
- Developmental—developmental milestones, confounding variables (handling time of day, nutrition, litter size), post-natal effects
- Affective/conative—emotional reactions (freezing, defecation), escape/defense behaviours (biting, hissing), affiliative behaviours (huddling)
- Socio-affective—interactive behaviours (dyads, triads), parental behaviours (maternal, paternal)
- Cognitive—attention, memory, problem solving
- Psychopathological/neurological—preclinical models of disorders
Cluster 1: Simple-General
- Simple reflexes: Stretch, Knee Jerk, Eye blink
- Postures: Standing, Rearing, Lying, Balancing, Sitting, Urination posture.
- Locomotion: Walking, Creeping, Running, Crawling, Swimming, Stalking, Flying, Hopping, etc
- Activity levels
Locomotor Assays
- Direct observation
- Photocell-based systems and other automated systems
- Motor Coordination and Balance.
- Balance with rotarod
- Beam walking
- Footprint analysis
Cluster 2: Simple-Specific
- Species-specific action patterns (innate/instinctive behaviour)
- Simple/complex action sequences
- Normal/abnormal stereotyped behaviours (e.g., perseverations)
Cluster 3: Acquired Behaviours
- Reflexes/startle/orienting responses
- Simple, non-associative learning (habituation, sensitization)
- Conditioning (classical/Pavlovian, instrumental/Skinnerian/operant)
- Includes behaviours like taste aversion, maze learning, etc.
Complex Clusters
- Cluster 4: Developmental cluster
- Cluster 5: Affective/conative cluster (emotion/motivation).
- Cluster 6: Socio-affective cluster (interactive behaviour; incl. parental behaviours: maternal, paternal).
- Cluster 7: Cognitive cluster (attention, memory, problem-solving)
- Cluster 8: Preclinical models of neurological and psychiatric disorders (e.g., Parkinson's, lesions, toxins, 6-OHDA, MPTP, global/focal cerebral ischemia, etc.)
Developmental Clusters
- Developmental milestones
- Confounding variables (e.g., handling time, nutrition, litter size)
- Post-natal and maternal effects
Developmental Milestones in Rodent
- Physical landmarks (eye opening, incisor eruption, fur development).
- Locomotor behaviours (head elevation, forelimb & shoulder elevation, pivoting, crawling, walking, swimming).
- Reflexes (see next slide)
Milestones: Reflexes
- Surface righting
- Air righting
- Negative geotaxis
- Cliff avoidance
- Visual placing
- Limb placing
- Vibrissa placing
- Auditory startle
- Tactile startle
- Crossed extensor reflex
- Rooting reflex
- Grasp reflex
- Bar holding
- Level screen test
- Vertical screen test
Milestones: Assessment
- Species-specific assessments based on documented values.
- Average and range of response age in days for each category and milestone, including species and strains.
Assays for Motivation
- Eating/drinking
- Food intake measures
- Food preference tests
- Reproductive/sexual behavior (mounts, intromissions, ejaculations, lordosis)
- Hormone replacement
- Castration/ovariectomy experiments
Assays for Parental and Social Behaviours 1 & 2
- Observational/descriptive: nest construction, retrieval, licking of pups, actively hovering, motionless positioning—visual examples provided in the slides.
- Experimental: hormonal induction of maternal/paternal behavior, nest construction, maternal/paternal preferences, conditioned place preference, T-maze and Y-maze tests, "Pupomat" Carousel Preference test
Stress, Anxiety, Depression
- Stressors: restraint, electric foot shock, swim, social isolation, resident/intruder, maternal separation, sleep deprivation.
- Measures: Hormones, behaviours, etc.
- Construct validity
- Discriminant validity
- Other related constructs: anguish, arousal, fear, phobia, panic, trauma/PTSD, grief
Rodent Models of Depression
- Using stress to induce depression-like states
- Behavioural despair (immobility), learned-helplessness paradigms.
- Derived from forced swim tests.
- Include dogs, with Seligman's procedure (inescapable shocks in shuttle box), and tail suspension tests in mice.
Problems
- No animal models mimic all symptoms of depression.
- All current models are reactive models.
- Focus typically on psychomotor activity reduction, anhedonia, neuroendocrine responses, cognitive changes, eating/sleeping dysfunctions.
Reactive Depression
- Triggered by stress (social/physical), involving the HPA axis
- Depression involves the HPA axis
- Symptoms in depressed individuals are associated with an enlarged pituitary and adrenal glands.
- Higher levels of glucocorticoids (cortisol and corticosterone) in those with depression, potentially as a result in ACTH changes.
Stress Affects
- Endocrine system: adrenaline and noradrenaline (SAM axis), norepinephrine, acetylcholine, GABA.
- Depressed individuals have higher CRF levels in cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) and more CRF-producing cells in the hypothalamus (compared to non-depressed individuals).
- HPA axis activity is linked to glucocorticoids (cortisol).
- ECT and antidepressants reduce CRF levels
Dexamethasone (DEX)
- Synthetic glucocorticoid, used for a challenge to induce a strong down-regulation of CRF and ACTH.
- This down-regulation typically does not occur in depressed individuals.
Cortisol and Depression
- Graphs illustrate data and differences in cortisol levels between depressed/normal individuals.
Animal Tests of Anxiety
- Tests of anxiogenic/anxiolytic drugs, hormones, and situations.
- Measures include social interaction, light/dark exploration, elevated plus-maze, open field test, defensive burying, thirsty rat conflict.
Cognitive Testing in Animals
- Increased interest in cognitive impairments and neurodegenerative conditions, neurotoxins, and endocrine disruptors.
- Ample use and testing of animal learning and cognition.
Cognitive Processes
- Sensation and perception (psychophysics)
- Attention, working memory, latent inhibition, sign-tracking
- Learning, memory, acquisition, retention (storage), retrieval
- Types of consciousness: implicit/unconscious/incidental, explicit/conscious
- Problem-solving, decision-making
Tests: A Few Examples
- T and Y mazes (typically for invertebrates and lower vertebrates)
- Radial-arm mazes (4, 6, 8, 12 arms)
- Morris water maze
- Detection learning (yes/no, go/no-go to presence/absence of S)
- Discrimination learning
- Identification learning
- Rule learning/learning sets
Preclinical Models of Neurological and Psychiatric Disorders: Sample
- Parkinson's disease models (mutant strains, lesions, toxins, 6-OHDA, MPTP).
- Global/focal cerebral ischemia, photochemical cortical lesions, fluid percussion model (traumatic brain injury), neuropathic pain.
- Dural inflammation (migraine), painful diabetic neuropathy (STZ rat model), nociception, experimental autoimmune encephalomyelitis (EAE), amyotrophic lateral sclerosis (ALS) models, chemoconvulsant models of chronic spontaneous seizures.
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Description
This quiz delves into the methodologies used in behavioural sciences and neuroscience, emphasizing the simple-system approach. Explore the advantages and challenges of quantifying simple behaviours as indices of broader behaviour patterns. Engage with key concepts such as the 3 Little P's framework to deepen your understanding.
