Memory Updating: Spaced Retrieval

• Memory updating happens during encoding or retrieving events repetitively.

Massed vs. Distributed Practice

• Hermann Ebbinghaus discovered that distributed practice over time requires fewer repetitions than cramming (massed practice).
• The spacing effect shows that memory retention is better with distributed practice than massed practice.
• Memory performance improves with greater lags between practice sessions:
  • Each encoding links information to a temporal context.
  • Re-encoding after delays retrieves the old memory and updates the context.
  • Extended spacing "decontextualizes" memories, improving accessibility over longer delays.

Effects of Retrieval on Memory

• Retrieval betters long-term retention better than restudying material.
• Karpicke & Roediger (2006) discovered that retrieval practice leads to higher test scores after long delays.
• Repeated studying increased confidence, but retrieval practice did better on long-term retention.
• The testing effect occurs because of:
  • Metacognition: Testing exposes knowledge gaps.
  • Transfer Appropriate Processing: Aligning study and test conditions betters performance.
  • Error-Driven Learning: Retrieval finds memory weaknesses, allowing corrections.

Pretesting Effect

• Guessing answers before studying enhances retention when the correct information is given later.
• Pretesting creates a context that aids in encoding the correct answer.

Retrieval-Induced Effects on Other Memories

• Retrieval-Induced Forgetting (RIF): Retrieving some items impairs memory for related, non-retrieved items.
• Retrieval-Induced Facilitation (RIFA): Retrieval improves memory for contextually linked, non-competing items.
• The effects of retrieval depends on the integration or competition between items.

Suppressing Retrieval

• The Think/No-Think paradigm shows actively suppressing memory retrieval makes it harder to recall later.
• This effect is cue-independent, suggesting active suppression mechanisms.

Sleep and Memory Consolidation

• Sleep is important for memory consolidation.
• Neurons active during waking experiences reactivate during sleep.
• Jenkins and Dallenbach (1924) found improved memory retention when subjects slept during the delay.
• Cues during slow-wave sleep can lessen forgetting.

Memory Distortion and Implantation

• Memory retrieval can cause distortion because remembering involves both "playing" and "recording."
• Misinformation can alter memories when:
  • Memories are weak (e.g., after a delay)
  • An authority figure asks about distant events
  • Misinformation is given
  • Imagination is encouraged
  • The process is repeated
• Loftus's "Lost in the Mall" study shows false memories can be implanted, but only about 30% of the time.

Traumatic and "Flashbulb" Memories

• Traumatic memories can be forgotten and recovered.
• "Flashbulb memories" of significant events have similar forgetting rates to regular memories.
• Memory accuracy changes over time.

Practical Applications

• Optimal spacing interval relies on when the test will happen.
• Test conditions impact memory accuracy, such as asking people to consider memory sources.
• Conversations after events can improve memory via practicing retrieval.
• Memory updating helps adapt to novel situations.