Memory Encoding Storage and Retrieval

• Memory is the faculty of the brain by which data or information is encoded, stored, and retrieved when needed
• It is vital to experiences and related to perception, intention, and consciousness

Memory Encoding

• Encoding is the process of transforming sensory data into a form of mental representation
• It involves the initial learning of information
• Encoding is crucial for creating a memory
• The form of encoding can impact later memory retrieval

Memory Storage

• Storage: maintaining encoded information over a period of time
• Sensory memory is very short (milliseconds to seconds)
• Short-term memory lasts seconds to minutes
• Long-term memory can last days to years
• Memory consolidation is the process of transferring information from short-term to long-term memory

Memory Retrieval

• Retrieval involves accessing and bringing stored information into conscious awareness
• Recall is retrieving information without cues
• Recognition involves identifying previously learned information when presented
• Retrieval failure includes instances when information is stored, but not accessible

Types of Memory

• Sensory memory: the initial stage that holds sensory information briefly
• Iconic memory: visual sensory memory
• Echoic memory: auditory sensory memory
• Short-term memory (STM): holds a small amount of information in mind in an active, readily available state for a short period of time
• Long-term memory (LTM): storing information for a long duration
• Explicit (declarative) memory: requires conscious recall
• Semantic memory: facts and general knowledge
• Episodic memory: personal experiences and events
• Implicit (non-declarative) memory: does not require conscious recall
• Procedural memory: skills and habits
• Emotional conditioning involves emotional responses through classical conditioning

Brain Regions Involved in Memory

• Hippocampus: crucial for forming explicit long-term memories
• Amygdala: involved in emotional memories
• Cerebellum: plays a role in procedural memories and motor learning
• Prefrontal cortex: involved in working memory and encoding/retrieval of information

Forgetting

• Forgetting is the failure to retrieve or access stored information
• Decay: loss of information due to the passage of time
• Interference: when similar information disrupts encoding or retrieval
• Proactive interference: old information interferes with new information
• Retroactive interference: new information interferes with old information
• Motivated forgetting: repression (unconscious) or suppression (conscious)
• Encoding failure: information never enters long-term memory
• Retrieval failure: inability to access stored information
• Tip-of-the-tongue phenomenon: knowing that you know something without being able to recall it
• Amnesia: memory loss due to brain injury or trauma
• Anterograde amnesia: inability to form new memories after the event
• Retrograde amnesia: loss of memories from before the event

Memory Enhancement Strategies

• Chunking: organizing information into manageable units
• Mnemonics: memory aids that use imagery or organization
• Method of loci: associating items with specific locations
• Acronyms: using first letters to form a word
• Rehearsal: repeating information to maintain it in memory
• Elaborative rehearsal: connecting new information to existing knowledge
• Distributed practice: spreading out study sessions
• Testing effect: enhanced memory after retrieving information
• Sleep: important for memory consolidation

Memory Distortions and Errors

• Memory is not always accurate and can be subject to distortions and errors
• Misinformation effect: incorporating misleading information into one's memory of an event
• Source amnesia: attributing an event to the wrong source
• False memories: memories of events that never occurred
• Suggestibility: memories can be influenced by suggestions and leading questions
• Bias: current beliefs and feelings can distort past memories

Memory and Aging

• Age-related changes in memory are common, but the extent varies
• Working memory declines with age
• Episodic memory declines more than semantic memory
• Processing speed slows down
• Strategies to maintain cognitive function as you age include physical exercise, mental stimulation, and social engagement