Memory Encoding

• Memory is the retention of information or experience over time
• Memory relies on encoding, storage, and retrieval

Memory Encoding

• Encoding is the first step in memory; information is readied for storage
• Encoding requires effort through:
• Paying attention
• Deep processing
• Elaboration
• Mental imagery
• Selective Attention is important; it involves focusing on an experience while ignoring others
• Attention is selective because of the brain's limited resources
• Divided Attention involves concentrating on more than one activity simultaneously; multitasking
• Sustained Attention involves maintaining attention to a selected stimulus for an extended time
• Levels of Processing range from shallow to deep, with deeper processing producing better memory
• Shallow processing involves analyzing physical and perceptual features, detecting lines, angles, and contours
• Intermediate processing involves recognizing and labeling a stimulus
• Deep processing involves semantic, meaningful, symbolic analysis that brings associations to mind
• Elaboration involves creating connections around a stimulus
• Self-reference involves relating material to personal experiences

Imagery

• Imagery involves using mental images to make memories distinctive
• Imagery types include auditory, tactile, gustatory, visual and olfactory

Memory Storage

• Storage is the retention of information over time and how this information is represented
• The Atkinson-Shiffrin Theory (1968) theorizes that memory storage involves three systems:
• Sensory memory (fractions of a second to several seconds)
• Short-term memory (up to 30 seconds)
• Long-term memory (up to a lifetime)

Atkinson Shriffin Model

• Sensory memory involves holding information in its original sensory form for an instant
• Sensory memory is lost if strategies to convert to short- or long-term memory are not used
• Short-term memory (STM) is a limited-capacity system where information is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds unless strategies are used to retain it longer.
• Long-term memory (LTM) is a relatively permanent type that stores huge amounts of information for a long time.
• Sensory memory holds information in its original sensory form briefly
• Many more stimuli are processed at the sensory level than are consciously noticed
• Echoic memory refers to auditory sensory memory
• Iconic memory refers to visual sensory memory
• Short-term memory is a limited-capacity system where information is usually retained for only as long as 30 seconds
• Short term memory is much more limited in overall capacity than sensory memory
• Chunking involves grouping information into higher-order units
• Rehearsal involves conscious repetition of information
• Information stored in short-term memory lasts half a minute or less without rehearsal
• Rehearsal, if uninterrupted, can retain information indefinitely

Working Memory

• Working Memory is a three-part system which allows one to hold information temporarily when performing cognitive tasks
• The brain manipulates and assembles information to help with understanding, decisions, and problem solving
• Baddeley's model (2000) has 3 components:
• Phonological loop specializes in storing speech-based information about the sounds of language briefly
• Visuospatial working memory stores visual and spatial information, including visual imagery
• Central executive integrates information from the phonological loop, visuospatial memory, and long-term memory
• Long Term Memory is a relatively permanent memory that stores huge amounts of information for a long time

Long Term Memory types

• Explicit Memory (declarative memory) involves conscious recollection of information that can be verbally communicated
• Episodic Memory retains information about the where, when, and what of life's events
• Semantic Memory is a person's knowledge about the world
• Implicit Memory (nondeclarative memory) is the type in which behavior is affected by prior experience
• Procedural memory stores memory of skills
• Priming activates information already stored
• Classical Conditioning

Memory Storage

• Schemas are preexisting mental concepts/frameworks that help organize and interpret information
• Scripts are schemas for events
• Connectionism/Parallel Distributed Processing (PDP) theorizes that memory is stored throughout the brain in connections among neurons

Memory Retrieval

• Retrieval is the memory process when information comes out of storage
• The Serial Position Effect is the tendency to recall from the beginning and end of a list more readily
• Two factors involved are the nature of the cues that can prompt memory and the retrieval task
• Recall is a memory task in which the individual has to retrieve previously learned information (essay writing)
• Recognition is a memory task in which the individual only has to identify learned items (multiple choice tests)
• Autobiographical Memory is a special type of episodic memory that includes recollections of one's life experiences
• Flashbulb Memory involves the memory of emotionally significant events; events are recalled with accuracy and vivid imagery
• Childhood Amnesia is the inability of adults to retrieve episodic memories before the age of two to four
• Repressed Memories involve defense mechanisms by which a person is too traumatized by an event and forgets it

Special Types of Memory

• Exceptional memory:
• Eyewitness Testimony:
• Recovered Memories:

Forgetting

• Forgetting is the apparent loss or modification of information that has already been encoded and stored
• Forgetting is a spontaneous or gradual process in which old memories cannot be recalled
• Encoding Failure: occurs when information was never entered into long-term memory
• Retrieval failure causes include problems with the information in storage, the effects of time, personal reasons, and the brain's condition
• Interference Theory: People forget when other information gets in the way
• Positive Interference: Material learned earlier disrupts the recall of the material learned earlier
• Retroactive Inference: Material learned later disrupts the retrieval of information learned earlier
• Decay Theory: A neurochemical memory trace forms when something new is learned, but over time this trace disintegrates
• Suggests that the passage of time always increases forgetting
• Tip-of-the-Tongue Phenomenon is a type retrieval that occurs when there is a confidence about knowing something, but it cannot be pulled out of memory
• Retrospective Memory involves remembering information from the past
• Prospective Memory involves remembering information about doing something in the future and includes memory for intentions
• Amnesia is loss of memory
• Anterograde Amnesia affects the retention of new information and events
• Retrograde Amnesia affects memory loss for a segment of the past but not for new events

Study Tips for Improving Memory

• Organize notes routinely and catch potential errors
• Organize material effectively
• Experiment with different organizational techniques
• Pay attention
• Process information at an appropriate level
• Elaborate on points to be remembered
• Use imagery
• Encoding is not simply something to do before a test
• Rewrite, type, or retype notes
• Talk about what has been learned
• Test yourself
• Ask questions while reading and studying
• Treat your brain kindly
• Use retrieval cues
• Sit comfortably, take a deep breath, and stay calm