Memory: Basic Conceptual Approaches

<p>Memory that requires effortful recollection. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Primarily involves skills and habits that are performed unconsciously. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Knowing how (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>A heightened ability to recognize a stimulus after previous exposure (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Maintenance rehearsal is passive, while elaborative rehearsal is active (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>With the use of elaborate processing techniques (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Episodic memory (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Episodic - Declarative and specific events (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Shallow processing techniques (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Recognition of previously seen stimuli (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Different forms of memory operate under varying principles. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Has a limited capacity and holds information briefly. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>How the position of words affects recall abilities. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Forgetfulness follows a predictable exponential pattern after learning. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Implicit memory involves unintentional learning, while explicit memory is deliberate. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Prior knowledge facilitates the encoding of new information. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It has an almost unlimited capacity. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Stores information permanently without rehearsal. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Increased IQ without learning new information (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>They can be flexibly communicated in formats different from their acquisition (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It includes the acquisition of motor and cognitive skills (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Explicit memory is conscious, while implicit memory is unconscious. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Episodic memories are tied to personal experiences, while semantic memories are general knowledge. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Connecting new information to prior knowledge (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It refers to encoding based on the superficial characteristics of stimuli. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The success of recall is enhanced when cognitive operations match the encoding process. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The depth of processing applied to the information. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Perceiving, manipulating, and interpreting stimuli (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It provides empirical support through dissociation studies. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is less durable than long-term memory. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The influence of rehearsal on memory transfer. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It has a limited capacity that can easily be displaced. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>By showing that different memory systems can be affected independently. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The rate of presentation of information. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The performance of amnesic patients on memory tasks. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Short-term and long-term memory. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is acquired through unconscious learning. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Recognition of previously experienced stimuli. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Combination of forming, retaining, and retrieving information. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Elaborative rehearsal. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It is a passive repetition of information. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It generally contributes to forgetting. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It correlates cognitive processing depth with memory retention. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Recognition through previously presented stimuli. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Forgetting primarily occurs within minutes or days of learning. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cued recall (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Memory results from activation of networks of interrelated concepts. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>New memories are vulnerable to disruptions while older memories are stable. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>In a distinct activation pattern of a neural network. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Recalling information without cues or prompts. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Each can connect to various other units to create multiple knowledge sources. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It goes back to baseline resting state after activation is complete. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To provide input and output connections (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Proactive interference (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Disruption of old memories by new information (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Recalling an event but misattributing its source (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>To activate associations related to the main memory (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cryptomnesia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Overlapping memories diminish the strength of one or both (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Potential interconnections among neural units (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Deeper processing leads to better recall of information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Prior knowledge helps in connecting new information to existing knowledge, making it easier to remember.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Transfer-appropriate processing states that memory retrieval is more effective when cognitive operations at encoding align with those during retrieval.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Incidental learning occurs without the explicit intention to learn, often relying on the quality of processing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cognitive operations involve perceiving, manipulating, and interpreting stimuli, which are crucial for effective memory retrieval.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It suggests that memory consists of different compartments or components, each with unique characteristics.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The Dual Store Theory differentiates them by stating that STM holds information briefly and has limited capacity, while LTM stores information durably and has nearly unlimited capacity.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Rehearsal is crucial as it helps maintain information in short-term memory and facilitates its transfer to long-term memory when performed adequately.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The serial position curve illustrates that recall of words in a list is affected by their position, typically showing improved recall for items presented at the beginning and end of the list.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Evidence from dissociation and double dissociation studies, particularly involving brain-damaged patients like Patient H.M., supports the existence of distinct memory stores.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Disaggregation allows for a simpler understanding of memory by breaking it down into smaller compartments, each with its own characteristics and principles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Considering both aspects is important because they reveal how different memory types operate distinctly in terms of duration, capacity, and retrieval mechanisms.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The limited capacity characteristic indicates that short-term memory can typically hold only a few items at a time, which impacts how information is retained and processed.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Procedural memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It facilitates a faster and more accurate response to that stimulus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Maintenance rehearsal involves passive repetition, while elaborative rehearsal requires active, meaningful analysis.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It posits that deeper cognitive processing enhances retention and understanding.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Priming enhances the identification of stimuli previously encountered.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Procedural knowledge is non-declarative and involves skills, while episodic and semantic memories are declarative, focusing on 'what' is known.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Formation, retention, and retrieval of memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>It greatly enhances memory retention by promoting deeper understanding and connection to prior knowledge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The removal of the hippocampus demonstrates that while STM can be intact, LTM, especially the ability to learn new information, can be severely impaired, highlighting a dissociation between the two.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>'I remember' indicates a personal and contextual recollection of experiences (episodic), while 'I know' reflects a factual, context-free understanding (semantic).</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Procedural learning focuses on 'knowing how' to perform tasks, encompassing motor skills, cognitive skills, and perceptual skills, as opposed to recalling facts or personal experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Both episodic and semantic memories can be flexibly communicated and can be consciously recalled, embodying the concept of declarative memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The distinction highlights that explicit memory involves conscious recollection of facts and events, while implicit memory governs actions and habits performed unconsciously, influencing behavior without awareness.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Connectionist models propose that recalling a memory activates related neural units, leading to the summation of associated information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Interference disrupts memory by causing overlaps between similar memories, which can weaken either or both memories.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Source amnesia is when a person remembers information but forgets its origin; for example, it may occur when someone recalls a fact but cannot cite where they learned it.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Proactive interference happens when old information disrupts the acquisition of new information, making it harder to learn effectively.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Connectionist models stress that neural units are interconnected, allowing for complex relationships and the combination of various memories.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Retroactive interference occurs when new information interferes with the recall of older information, often leading to forgetting previously learned material.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The forgetting curve indicates that most forgetting occurs shortly after learning, with significant memory drops occurring within minutes or days.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cryptomnesia is a form of source amnesia where a person mistakenly believes their recalled thoughts are new, often resulting in unintentional plagiarism.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The activation of neural units enhances memory retrieval by enabling access to associated information, creating a more comprehensive memory experience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Free recall involves retrieving information without any cues, while cued recall provides prompts to assist memory retrieval.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Neural connections form networks where each memory is represented by a unique activation pattern among interrelated concepts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Older memories become stable as they are reinforced through repeated activation, whereas new memories are more vulnerable to disruption.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Cues are valuable in helping trigger memory recall, especially in cued recall and recognition tasks, enhancing the likelihood of successful retrieval.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Ebbinghaus' findings suggest that revisiting and practicing learned material soon after initial learning can significantly enhance memory retention.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>Recognition involves identifying the correct answer from given options, while free and cued recall require producing information from memory without given alternatives.</p> Signup and view all the answers

<p>The activation of neural networks occurs after learning, where connections are strengthened or weakened based on experiences, impacting future memory recall.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Personal memory system retaining contextual and temporal information.

General knowledge; acquired after several exposures.

Knowledge of how to do things (skills).

Fact memory; conscious recollection.

Skill memory; not consciously recalled.

"Knowing how" to do something; a skill or procedure you can perform.

Improved response to a stimulus because it was recently experienced.

Memory you can consciously recall.

"Knowing how" or skills, often unconscious and learned.

Processing information deeply, actively, relates to better recall than just shallow repetition.

Actively thinking about and connecting new information to prior knowledge.

The idea that memory is made up of different compartments, each with its own characteristics, instead of being a single unit.

A memory system that temporarily stores and processes information. It has limited capacity and information is quickly forgotten without rehearsal.

A more enduring form of memory capable of holding significant amounts of information for a long time.

A theory proposing that memory consists of separate components: short-term memory (STM) and long-term memory (LTM).

A phenomenon where items at both the beginning and end of a list are better recalled than those in the middle.

Repeating information to maintain it in short term memory or to transfer it to long term memory.

Better recall of items near the beginning of a list

Patients with memory impairment due to brain damage, like Patient H.M.

It helps us understand memory better by breaking it down into smaller, more manageable parts, each with its own characteristics.

Remembering is due to the quality of processing, not the intention to learn.

Learning something without intending to learn it, due to deep processing.

Retrieving information requires re-engaging the same cognitive operations used during learning.

Connecting new information to existing knowledge improves memory.

How we perceive, manipulate, and think about information.

Episodic memory is about personal experiences, while semantic memory is about general knowledge. Episodic memory holds details like time and place, while semantic memory doesn't. Episodic memory is like remembering a specific event, while semantic memory is like knowing the meaning of a word.

Patient H.M. lost the ability to form new long-term memories after surgery, but his short-term memory remained intact. This shows that the two memory systems work independently.

The fact that humans can describe their memories in different formats than the original experience demonstrates conscious access. We can talk about a memory with words, even if it involved seeing a particular image.

Declarative memory is the conscious recall of facts and events. It's the type of memory we can talk about or explain, like what we had for dinner or who is the current president.

Explicit memory is conscious and involves facts and events. Implicit memory is unconscious and involves skills and habits. Explicit memory is 'knowing that', while implicit memory is 'knowing how'.

Most forgetting happens rapidly after learning, slowing down over time. This shows that memories are more vulnerable soon after being formed.

The process of stabilizing new memories. It makes them less vulnerable to disruptions and more likely to be stored for the long term.

Retrieving information without any prompts or cues. Like writing an essay where you have to remember everything.

Recalling information when a hint or cue is provided. Like filling in the blanks on a test.

Identifying the correct answer from a set of options. Like choosing the right answer on a multiple-choice test.

Explains memory by simulating how neural networks change during learning. It proposes that memories are formed by activating a network of interconnected concepts.

In the connectionist model, each neuron-like unit can connect to several others. These connections strengthen with use and represent the building blocks of memories.

Activating a memory in the connectionist model involves triggering a specific pattern of interconnected units. The more frequently this pattern is activated, the stronger the memory.

Long-Term Memory is divided into Declarative Memory and Nondeclarative Memory. Declarative Memory is the 'knowing that' and includes facts and events, while Nondeclarative Memory is the 'knowing how' and includes skills and procedures.

Imagine you see the word 'TABLE' several times. Later, you're asked to complete the word stem 'TAB___'. You're more likely to finish it as 'TABLE' because of the recent exposure.

Maintenance Rehearsal is simply repeating something passively, while Elaborative Rehearsal involves actively thinking about and connecting new information to what you already know.

Shallow Processing involves focusing on superficial characteristics, like the sound of a word, leading to poor memory. Deep Processing involves focusing on meaning, like the concept of the word, leading to better memory.

Procedural Learning primarily affects Nondeclarative Memory. This is because it's about acquiring skills and procedures, which are often automatic and unconscious.

The Depth of Processing Model suggests that forgetting is due to shallow processing. If you only processed information superficially, you're likely to forget it.

The three stages of memory are Encoding, Retention, and Retrieval. Encoding is the process of forming a memory, Retention is the process of storing it, and Retrieval is the process of accessing it.

These tasks are used to test Priming. In a word stem task, participants are given a stem like 'TAB___' and asked to complete it. In a fragmentation task, they're shown a fragmented word like 'T_B_E' and must identify it.

When two memories with overlapping content negatively affect each other, making it harder to recall one or both memories.

When older information makes it difficult to learn and remember new information.

When new information makes it harder to remember older information.

Remembering a fact or event but forgetting where you learned it or when it occurred.

When a person believes their thoughts are original and novel but actually unknowingly borrowed from another source, potentially leading to plagiarism.

Interference, which happens when two memories overlap in content, weakening each other. Source amnesia, where we remember a fact but not the source. False memory, where we remember an event that never happened.

The inability to retrieve or store information accurately, leading to faulty recall or forgetting.

A patient who had surgery to remove his hippocampus and surrounding brain areas to treat epilepsy. He suffered anterograde amnesia, unable to form new long-term memories while retaining short-term memory.

The inability to form new long-term memories while retaining memories from before the event that caused the amnesia.

Episodic memory is about personal experiences, while semantic memory is about general knowledge. Episodic memory holds details like time and place, while semantic memory doesn't. Episodic memory is like remembering a specific event, while semantic memory is like knowing the meaning of a word.

Shallow processing is focusing on superficial features like the sound or appearance of a word, while deep processing involves considering meaning and connections to existing knowledge.

The idea that memory is not one single unit, but rather a collection of different systems, each with its own characteristics.

This theory proposes that we have two main memory stores: Short-Term Memory (STM) and Long-Term Memory (LTM).

A temporary memory system that holds information briefly. It has a limited capacity and information is quickly forgotten if not rehearsed.

A more enduring form of memory capable of holding vast amounts of information for a longer period. It's like a large library where memories are stored for later retrieval.

The tendency to remember items at the beginning and end of a list better than those in the middle.

The primacy effect (better recall of early items) is related to information being transferred from STM to LTM through rehearsal. The recency effect (better recall of later items) is due to information still being in STM.

Patient H.M. suffered brain damage that severely impaired his ability to form new long-term memories, but his short-term memory remained intact. This supports the idea that STM and LTM are distinct systems.

Phase 1: Participants read a list of words, including the target word. Phase 2: Participants are presented with a word stem or fragment related to the target word, making it easier to complete or identify.

Acquiring the rules for performing a task, often without conscious awareness.

Elaborative rehearsal involves actively processing and connecting new information to existing knowledge, while maintenance rehearsal is simply repeating information passively.

This model proposes that memory is a single unit and the degree of cognitive processing determines how well something is remembered. Deep processing leads to better retention.

Forgetting is a result of shallow processing, where information was not processed deeply enough to be stored effectively.

An enhanced response to a stimulus due to prior exposure to that stimulus.

In the connectionist model, each neuron-like unit can connect to several others. These connections strengthen with use, forming the basis of memories.

Neuron-like units within the Connectionist Model that represent individual concepts or pieces of information, like the name 'John.'

Links between neural units in the Connectionist Model showing how concepts relate to each other. These connections get stronger with repeated use, representing the strengthening of memory.

The process in the Connectionist Model where a neural unit is made active, triggering a cascade of activation in other connected units, simulating memory recall.