Medieval Art: Ottonian Style

• Medieval art saw the church as the greatest patron
• Artists focused on portraying sanctity over beauty
• Christian art depicted slender figures in heavy robes with solemn faces and deep eyes, the eyes symbolizing windows to the soul
• Images became less realistic and more heavenly
• The Carolingian Renaissance of Charlemagne helped address the low culture of the Merovingians
• Europe became more literate, civilized, and Christian
• Saints and Biblical themes became common
• Art reflected deeper spiritual themes and depicted human form as caricatures rather than realistically
• Charlemagne used strong Greco-Roman styles to symbolize his status as Holy Roman Emperor

Medieval Art “Ottonian” Style

• King Otto I supported the Church and married Byzantine Princess Theophano
• Theophano introduced Byzantine influence into German art
• Religious figures had a slender form
• Otto II and Otto III supported Byzantine influence
• Byzantine influence introduced the theme of Christ's redemptive suffering on the cross, often depicted with a sagging head and posture

Medieval Art “Romanesque” Style

• Primary religious themes showed more emotion, such as a loving God
• This style reflected the Church's confidence and worldliness
• There was a greater emphasis on God's redemptive nature
• Fantasy and playful distortion were present in the art
• Sculptures used much color
• Artists copied "Classical" styles
• Figures were often depicted crowded on the capitals of pillars

Gothic Style

• The Virgin Mary became a major theme

Music of the Middle Ages

• Gregorian Chant (plainsong) was compiled over centuries
• Gregorian Chant used during Church ceremonies
• Pope Gregory the Great (r. 590-604) traditionally associated with Gregorian Chant
• Gregorian Chant had a formal and orderly structure which mirrored a belief in God's guiding hand on the Universe

Gorgorian Chant: Neumes

• A staff with four lines of written words guided the singer from the 9th century

Gregorian Chant: Polyphony

• Instead of a single voice, two or more voices sang simultaneously along different interrelated voice lines
• Melodic lines were superimposed over extended syllables from the original Gregorian Chant
• The lower “droned” voice was eventually performed using an instrument

Performers/Composers: Gorliards

• Goliards were itinerant poet-performers active from the 10th to 13th centuries
• Clerics and scholars generally wrote/performed Goliard music
• Latin lyrics exist, but not much music
• Carmina Burana (songs that are bawdy, irreverent and satirical)
• Themes included drunkenness & debauchery, morals, mockery, love, gambling, and the satire of the Church

Performers and Composers of the Troubadour

• Troubadours were more polished and poetic than the Minstrels

Medieval Instruments: The Organistrum

• The Organistrum was played across the knees of two musicians
• One musician turned a crank to bow the instrument
• Another musician pressed the keys to stop the strings to produce a tune

Medieval Forms

• By the late 10th century, drama shifted away from classical models to:
• Mystery Plays (liturgical dramas and morality plays)
• Musical dramas based on the work of St. Hildegard of Bingen (1098 -1179)

Boethius (c.480-524)

• Philosopher & high official in the court of Theodoric
• Translated most of the works of Plato and Aristotle from Greek into Latin, now more accessible
• Wrote "The Consolation of Philosophy"
• He divided the 7 Liberal Arts into two groups:
• Trivium (grammar, rhetoric, dialectic/logic)
• Quadrivium (arithmetic, music, geometry, astronomy)
• The goal was to learn wisdom and knowledge and then use it wisely and justly (very Christian and moral)
• The division of the 7 Liberal Arts became the basis of Medieval curriculum

Carolingian Renaissance (late 8th & early 9th centuries)

• Charlemagne recognized the need for literate people to administer his empire (codify laws, send messages, keep records, copy documents, teach)
• He hired individual scholars from abroad to teach at his capital in Aachen because there were no local scholars, a legacy of the Merovingians
• Notable scholars included Alcuin of York, Einhard from East Francia, Paul the Deacon from Italy, and Theodulf from Iberia, Spain
• In 789, Charlemagne opened Cathedral and monastery schools for both girls and boys
• Systematic education focused on the Seven Liberal Arts to train individuals for the Church and Civil Service which led to a significant improvement in the quality of Latin

11th-12th Centuries

• Abelard tried to reconcile the Catholic Faith with human reason, known as the "Scholastic Method"

Secular Teaching

• Roman law was rediscovered: Justinian's Digest in 1070
• It was taught by rhetoricians (Irnerius)
• The first law school opened at Bologna and quickly became popular
• From Bologna, Roman law spread across Europe
• Training in critical thinking became increasingly rigorous

Universities

• Universitates were formed from a coalition between students & teachers
• There was mutual advantage as they negotiated prices for food and lodgings in towns
• Legal protection (town & gown)
• It was created as a recognized corporate status for scholars
• Main functions
• Students had legal status of clergy
• Staff and students often wore clerical gowns to symbolize their status
• Were tried under Canon Law only
• Gave rise to "Town & Gown" riots
• Excluded women

Universities: Campus?

• There was only a legal existence, with no physical space
• Universities did not need to build a physical campus, they only rented buildings in a town
• Universities could move to find better conditions in other towns, making them a significant bargaining chip
• Tuition and purchases had an impact on the local community, giving students some power and privilege
• All accommodation was private and rented
• Buildings accumulated through gifts and donations
• Colleges served as endowment funds to support poor students

University of Paris (Theology)

• There was a focus on the Liberal Arts, including Orthodox theology and the teachings of Thomas Aquinas

University of Bologna (Law)

• The focus was on law
• Inerius (c. 1055-1130) taught Medieval Roman Law, based on the rediscovery of Justinian's Code in 1070
• C. 1150: Gratian wrote his Decretum on Canon Law

Oxford University (Arts)

• Focus on the Liberal Arts (especially quadrivium), but also theology, medicine, science, and civil and Canon law
• Curriculum
• Main theology textbook: Peter Lombard's Sentences
• Text set out conflicting opinions and students used advanced logic to reconcile the views
• Students had to write extensive commentaries on it to become masters

Peter Abelard (1079 – 1142)

• French scholastic, logician, philosopher, and theologian, known as "the keenest thinker and boldest theologian of the 12th Century"

Albertus Magnus (c. 1200-1280)

• By 1241, he became a Master teacher of theology in Paris

Thomas Aquinas (1225-1274)

• Dominican priest, theologian, and philosopher
• Believed Faith + Reason are required
• Adapted Aristotelian philosophy, stating that higher knowledge derives from Revelation in addition to reason
• Developed five arguments to prove the existence of God in Summa theologiae
• Pope Leo XIII declared Aquinas' work the basis of Catholic theology
• Aquinas is considered one of the Catholic Church's greatest theologians and philosophers

Ibn al-Haytham (c. 965– 1040): Optics

• Known as "the father of modern optics”

Robert Grosseteste: Optics

• Bishop of Lincoln, d. 1253, who translated scientific works from Greek and Arabic into Latin

Medieval Mathematics: "0"

• Leonardo of Pisa (aka Fibonacci) brought the Hindu-Arabic numeric system and the concept of “0” into European mathematics in 1202

Leonardo of Pisa (aka Fibonacci), 1175-1250

• First to systematically use the Hindu-Arabic decimal system of numbering
• First to use horizontal bar for fractions (e.g., ½)
• Fibonacci famous for number sequence problem (1, 1, 2, 3, 5, 8, 13, 21, 34, 55, 89, 144, etc.)

Ibn Rushd, or Averroes (1126 – 1198)

• In 1162 he wrote his most famous text, al-Kulliyat fi-Tibb ("General Principles of Medicine"), Latinized to Colliget and summarized his "best practice"

Medieval Medicine

• 3 main (pseudo-) authors: Hippocrates, Celsus, and Galen
• Hippocratic corpus, oath (Hippocrates, 5th c. BC)
• Celsus (1st c. AD): Latin medical text; reliance on drugs
• Galen (2nd c. AD): Influence extends beyond the Roman period
• Latin translation became a standard medical textbook in Europe
• Thought disease was caused by:
• Bad air ("malaria")
• Spontaneous generation
• God's vengeance
• Demons
• Jews or lepers
• Imbalance of humours
• Physicians tried to treat an imbalance of humours (Blood, Phlegm, Yellow Bile, and Black Bile)
• Illness was thought to have been caused by an imbalance in the humours
• Most common cause was too much blood
• Main treatment was bloodletting
• Other treatments include rest, baths of various temperatures, adjustments to diet and exercise, and herbal remedies
• Leeches and maggots are still used today
• The Medieval Barber

Physicians vs. Surgeons

• Most "physicians" were learned scholars, lecturers, and theoretical doctors (often monks and religious men)
• They were influential due to their ability to research, lecture, and debate
• Some still taught that illness was a punishment from God, and cures lay in proper penance or pilgrimage
• Prayer was often believed to be as valuable as herbs or medicine
• Many turned to barbers for practical treatment

Historical Context of Barbers

• In many early cultures, hair care was a religious and health matter
• Many believed that proper grooming could prevent certain evil spirits from entering the body through the hair
• Monks also needed regular treatment to maintain their tonsures, which barbers carried out
• Over time, barbers acquired a variety of medical skills as well

The Medieval Barber's Role

• Barbers set up "barber shops" in all communities and in very public places
• They put out a red and white striped pole to indicate the duality of their trade
• Red represented the medical surgery aspect
• White represented the hair care and grooming aspect
• The pole also usually had a brass basin at the top (representing the bowl of leeches) and at the bottom (to catch any blood spilled during procedures)

The Black Death

• The Black Death caused the disesas plague, which takes there main forms:
• Bubonic plague
• Mnemonic plague
• Septicemic plague

Social Responses ot the Plague

• Anti semitism in 1349 where Strasbourg executed 16,000 people
• People aimed programmes against Gypsies, friars, foreigners, beggars, pilgrims, cats, and lepers (find scaprgoats)
• "Ring around a rosi" nursery rhyme
• Different attitudes emerged where people either lived it up or were contrite
• Religious fanaticism to gain gods favor
• Religious reactions
• The church became powerless

Economic Impact of the Black Death

• Labour shortage caused workers to become highly valued, leading to skyrocketing wages
• Economic Power Shift to entrepreneurs
• Prices Dropped leading to fear of death, prices fell, and items lost their value
• Efficiency increased as People learned to do more with less
• Socail mobility increased

High Number of Deaths

• Cheaper Rents as there were more places to live, leading to cheaper rents
• Healthier Cities because there were fewer people
• However High Crime Rate due to Empty homes were often robbed
• Demand for Power as Common people increasingly demanded more power in the government
• Peasants' Revolt, 1381

The Church

• Perceived as Powerlessness because The Church appeared powerless to save the faithful during the Black Death
• Papacy Moved from Rome to Avignon, France (1306-1376) to save itself

Germanic Law Codes: Freedom & Rights

• Individuals has Freedom and Right
• The Right to Carry Weapons
• Knowledge of Use
• Obligation to Fight

Germanic Law Codes: Wergild

• Concept of Wergild (Body/Blood Price): based on social status and worth
• Compensation was based on injuries or deaths was based on a percentage of the "wergild"
• Under Anglo-Saxon "Laws of King Aethelberht" of Kent (written c. 602 CE), a common man's wergild was 100 schillings

Germanic Law: Arrest & Trial

• Family Support because the Family provided legal, financial, social, and physical support. and Family helps with Fine Payment

Germanic Law: The Trial

• A Single Accusation was enough to start a trial

Trials by Oath

• Oath takers swear to god as witness
• The more oath takers the more serious and eye witnesses needed

Germanic Law: The Ordeal

• Trial by Ordeal - Judged my divine
• Preparation - involving prays, mass, fasting and penance

Types of Ordeals

• Fire
• Hold Water
• Cold Water
• Combat

Verdict and Consequences

• Clergy Determins final verdict
• Fines or Death
• Abuses

The Beginnings of English Common Law

• William 1, the Conqueror
• 1066 -became King of England
• William Introduces Feudal System and Common Law
• Established The King's Court, with William appointing judges

Assizes of Clarendon (1166)

• Key Points
• Instructions to Judge
• Centralization of Power
• protected Property Rights
• The creation of Local Courts
• travelling justices
• Jury System

English Common Law: The Magna Carta

• Key points
• Abolition of Trial by Ordeal
• Commoners Jury Trials
• Protected of Rights
• Due Proccess Outlines

Canon Law

• Final Authority - The Pope his final say

St. Augustine’s Quote

• St. Augustine’s Quote: "Roma locuta est, causa finita est" ("Rome has spoken, case is closed"), a quote attributed to St. Augustine of Hippo in a sermon in 417.

Medieval Town Hall

• The town hall was the administrative center for bustling medieval towns and cities
• Served as the center of government, law, and trade
• Meant to showcase the town's prosperity
• Included meeting rooms, offices, a treasury, and law courts
• Common across Europe

Medieval Guildhall

• It was similar in design to the town hall, but had a commercial purpose
• Often provided living quarters for masters Served as a private club and school for the guild
• Built to show off the guild's wealth, prestige, and craftsmanship
• The construction was of high Quality
• Examples of guildhalls: The Merchant Adventurers' Hall in York, England, built in 1357

The Medieval Palace

• Served as a residence for wealthy church and lay aristocrats and designed to showcase their prestige and status
• A place to separate themselves from "the great unwashed"
• Always tall, lavish buildings representative of their status
• May be walled for privacy but generally not defensive
• Became less defensive over time

Mills (Water & Wind)

• Used to grind grain, one of the few mechanized processes compared to hand milling
• Became a commercial building and occupation of great importance to a community
• Owned by a lord
• Peasants were obliged to use it in exchange for a fraction of their harvest
• Millers were ubiquitous and held a higher-status job
• The surname "Miller" often survived

Trope of the Unscrupulous Miller

• A common trope, as seen in Chaucer's "The Miller's Tale," which speaks of the unscrupulous miller taking advantage of peasants

Medieval Castles

• Often built on the site of old Roman forts, based on local supplies of stone, craftsmen, workers, and water, in elevated or easily defensible positions
• Especially important in newly conquered territories like Wales
• Early castles were made of wood and later replaced with thick stone walls, moats, drawbridges, and iron gates
• Made obsolete by gunpowder as they could be easily destroyed

Defensive Features

• Drawbridge: Raising the bridge kept enemies out and friends in, strengthening the vulnerable gatehouse
• Portcullis: A heavy sliding metal gate used to reinforce the gatehouse (e.g., Cahir Castle in Ireland, 1142)

Fortification Components

• Concentric Walls and Towers: Multiple layers of walls and buildings, creating a "castle within a castle," with taller inner walls overlooking shorter outer walls
• Crenellated Walls: Crenels (rectangular cut-outs) and merlons (solid blocks) provided protection for defenders
• Arrow Loops: Vertical slits in walls for archers and crossbowmen

Notable Castles

• Krak Des Chevaliers: An 11th-century castle in southwestern Syria, given to the Knights Hospitaller in 1142. It was a concentric castle and reconquered by the Muslims during the 8th Crusade in 1271
• Caerphilly Castle, Wales: Built 1268-1290 by Gilbert de Clare to protect his lands during King Henry III's conquest of Wales

Church Design

• Layouts
• Basilica-Type: Evolved from the Roman public hall, usually a long rectangular building with a rounded apse
• Cross-Shaped Church or Cathedral: Evolved from the basilica shape with transepts added to create a cruciform building

Cathedrals

• A cathedral is the location of the bishop's throne (cathedra) and serves as the administrative center for the diocese
• They are generally larger than average churches, with more relics, prestige, and status
• Built with donations from parishioners and local notables. Major donors often expected physical or spiritual returns

Romanesque vs. Gothic

• Romanesque
• Common in the 11th and 12th centuries
• Massive quality with thick, sturdy walls and columns, barrel vaults, small windows, shorter structures and towers, rounded arches, and a sombre atmosphere
• Gothic
• Time Period: 1150s to 1300s
• Use of flying buttresses for support, taller, thinner walls, and more windows
• Tallest medieval structures, with tall, thin columns, broad stained-glass windows, pointed arches, and ribbed vault ceilings. Brighter and more vibrantly decorated

Notable Cathedrals

• Westminster Abbey
• Begun in 1042 and completed in 1065 by King Edward the Confessor, rebuilt in the Gothic style by King Henry III starting in 1245
• The coronation site of every English monarch since 1066 and home to the tomb of the Unknown Soldier
• York Minster
• Largest Gothic cathedral in northern Europe, built over a larger Anglo-Saxon minster from c. 1220-155. High Gothic vault and ribbing over the central nave
• Salisbury Cathedral
• Officially named "The Cathedral of St Mary," built 1220-1258, and Britain's finest 13th-century Gothic cathedral
• Notre Dame de Paris
• Gothic cathedral with rib vaults, flying buttresses, and enormous colorful rose windows
• The sculptures of the Last Judgement and gargoyles were grotesque ornaments
• Round Churches: Temple Church
• Built by the Knights Templar in 1185 in London, based on the design of the Church of the Holy Sepulchre in Jerusalem
• Served as a church, hostel, bank, and meeting hall
• St. Basil's Moscow
• Built 1555-1561, commissioned by Czar Ivan "The Terrible" to celebrate his victory over the Tartar Mongols at Kazan in 1552
• There are nine onion-domed chapels to celebrate nine victorious attacks on Kazan
• Legend says the architect was blinded to prevent him from building anything as beautiful again