Marriage and Social Norms in Ancient India

Marriage and Social Norms

• Elite families regulated the lives of young girls and women to marry them at the "right" time and to the "right" person.
• Kanyadana, or the gift of a daughter in marriage, was viewed as a religious duty of the father.
• Three main types of marriage:
  • Monogamy: One man and one wife.
  • Polygamy/Polygyny: One man with multiple wives.
  • Polyandry: One woman with multiple husbands.
• From about 500 BCE, marriage norms were documented in Sanskrit texts including the Dharmasutras and Manusmriti, recognizing eight forms of marriage.
• The first four forms of marriage were classified as "good" (arranged by parents), while the latter four were condemned.

Gotra and Brahmanical Practices

• Gotra classification derived from Vedic seers, with women expected to adopt their husband's gotra upon marriage.
• Marrying within the same gotra was prohibited.
• Some Satavahana rulers engaged in polygyny, with queens retaining their father's gotras post-marriage, which contradicts the ideal of exogamy from Brahmanical texts.
• Endogamy, or marrying within kin groups, was prevalent among South Indian communities.

Social Structure and Occupation

• The Dharmasutras delineated ideal occupations for the four varnas:
  • Brahmanas: Study and teach Vedas, perform sacrifices, and give/receive gifts.
  • Kshatriyas: Engage in warfare, protect, administer justice, and perform sacrifices.
  • Vaishyas: Involved in agriculture, pastoralism, and trade.
  • Shudras: Serve the three higher varnas.
• Brahmanas reinforced occupational norms through divine justification and support by kings.

Non-Kshatriya Rulers and Caste Dynamics

• Kshatriyas were traditionally deemed rightful kings, yet many ruling families like the Mauryas hailed from "low" origins.
• The Shungas and Kanvas who succeeded the Mauryas were Brahmanas, indicating flexible power dynamics based on support rather than birth.
• Shakas from Central Asia were considered mlechchhas (barbarians), ruling parts of northwestern India.
• Satavahana rulers claimed Brahmanical descent while forming alliances with those deemed outside the varna system.

Jatis and Social Mobility

• Jati classification is based on birth and occupational categories with no fixed number, in contrast to the four varnas.
• Jati groups often formed guilds or shrenis to organize common professions, such as a guild of silk weavers migrating to Madhya Pradesh.
• Variations in social relations among higher varna members and outcastes fostered a sharing of ideas.

Untouchables and Social Contracts

• Brahmanas created a sharper divide by designating certain groups as "untouchables".
• Shudras and chandalas faced societal stigma, with followers of Brahmanical orthodoxy avoiding contact with them.
• Duties of chandalas included living outside villages and handling dead bodies, contributing to their status at the bottom of the social hierarchy.

Perspectives on Inequality and Textual Analysis

• Buddhists presented a different view on social inequalities, suggesting a malleable system influenced by human choices.
• Historians analyze texts like the Mahabharata by considering authorship, audience, linguistic elements, and their historical context.
• The Mahabharata is divided into narrative sections and didactic portions, depicting social messages within dramatic storytelling.
• Traditionally attributed to sage Vyasa, the Mahabharata evolved through retellings across diverse communities and languages.

Meanings of Wealth in Manusmriti

• Men could acquire wealth through inheritance, work, gifts, and various means as stipulated in Manusmriti.
• Women acquired wealth primarily through marriage, family gifts, and subsequent presents from spouses.

Key Questions to Consider

• Explore the ideal occupations according to the Dharmashastras.
• Discuss rules of marriage as outlined in the Dharmasutras.
• Analyze historical narratives about kinship and its implications in the Mahabharata.