Mahayana Buddhism: Origins and History

Mahayana Buddhism Overview

• Mahayana Buddhism considers itself the more genuine form of Buddhism.
• Since its founding over two years ago, it has branched into numerous schools, each with its own canon and rituals.
• Also known as the "Great Vehicle," Mahayana Buddhism emerged due to monastic rule and doctrinal differences within original Buddhism.
• Mahayana Buddhism is not a single group but an assembly of Buddhism that's widespread in China, Mongolia, Korea, Japan, and Tibet.

Historical Background

• Subtle variations in Buddhism began in the third century B.C.E., as Mauryan King Ashoka propagated Buddhist gospels.
• The Mahasamghika, one of the early Buddhist schools, may have been the source for the initial growth of Mahayana Buddhism.
• This growth occurred during the Second Buddhist Council, a hundred years after Buddha's par nirvana.
• Mahayana Buddhists believe Siddhartha secretly taught key principles to chosen people, his dedicated disciples, or the most faithful.
• Mahayana Buddhists forwarded the concept that Siddhartha Gautama was actually a benevolent celestial being, not just a human.
• Mahayana Buddhists advanced the radical idea that Siddhartha Gautama was not the only Buddha.
• Mahayana Buddhism is still the most popular branch of Buddhism in the world.

Sacred Scriptures

• Mahayana Buddhism accepts canonical texts of the Theravada school, such as the Tripitaka (Sanskrit word for "Three Baskets").
• The Tripitaka is a collection of Buddha's teachings.
• Mahayana Buddhism includes many sacred writings nearly identical in content with the Pali Canon of the Theravada sect.
• The canon of Mahayana Buddhism also consists of the Tripitaka: Sutra Pitaka (Discourse), Vinaya Pitaka (Discipline), Abidharma Pitaka (Ultimate Doctrine).
• Mahayana Buddhists have teachings or sutras not present in the Theravada school.
• Followers believe they have recovered the original teachings of the Buddha.
• As the original language of transmission, Mahayana Buddhism adopted Sanskrit over Pali.
• Examples include "sutra" (or sutta in Pali) and "dharma" (dhamma in Pali).
• Buddhist texts were translated in the local vernacular (the language or dialect spoken by people inhabiting a country or region).
• The Mahayana school possesses innumerable figures often lacking in Theravada literature.
• Examples include bodhisattvas (who delay nirvana out of compassion), demons, divinities, and other spirits.
• One of the most popular Mahayana Buddhist texts is the Lotus Sutra (or Saddharma-pundarika-sutra).
• It literally means "correct dharma white lotus sutra" or 'sutra of the Lotus of the wonderful law" in Sanskrit.
• Sutras pertain to the discourse (written or spoken communication/debate) of the historical Buddha.
• The Lotus Sutra is presented as a discourse conveyed by Siddhartha Gautama before his death.
• It contains the most definitive teaching of the Buddha.
• A key idea within the sutra is that all people equally and inherently possess Buddha nature (Buddha-hood).
• This is the condition of complete happiness and freedom from fear and illusions.
• Attainment of enlightenment is open to all people regardless of gender, race, social status, and education.
• Mahayana tradition maintains these sutras were kept for 500 years and reintroduced during the "Fourth Buddhist Council" in Kashmir in 78 C.E.

Beliefs and Doctrines: The Buddha

• Siddhartha Gautama, born in Nepal in the fifth or sixth century, is the historical Buddha in Mahayana Buddhism.
• He died at the age of 80.
• Theravada Buddhism only accepts the historical Buddha and past Buddhas.
• Mahayana Buddhism recognizes other contemporary and popular Buddhas apart from the historical Buddha.

Trikaya

• The Trikaya ("three bodies") is a teaching of Mahayana Buddhism about the nature of the Buddha and reality.
• The three bodies are Dharmakaya, Sambhogakaya, and Nirmanakaya.
• Dharmakaya is the body of absolute truth; the absolute nature of all beings; Buddha is transcendent.
• Sambhogakaya is the body that experiences bliss of enlightenment; Buddha's body of bliss, or enjoyment body.
• Nirmanakaya is the body that manifests the world; embodiment of Dharmakaya in human form; Buddha's earthly body, just like any human being's body.

Bodhisattvas

• Bodhisattva ("enlightened existence") is the ultimate way for any Buddhist to live in this world.
• A Bodhisattva has the capacity to determine the state of mind and emotion of each person.
• This facilitates assistance based on the actual needs for each person.
• Bodhisattvas are embodiments of great compassion.
• Four principles of Bodhisattvas:
• Avalokiteshvara: most revered and popular Buddhist deity among all bodhisattvas.
• Manjushri: embodiment of wisdom, intelligence, and willpower.
• Ksitigarbha: helps and liberates all sentient beings residing in hell.
• Samanthabhadra: representation of love, virtue, and diligence.

Bhumis and Paramitas

• In Mahayana tradition, a bodhisattva must pass ten bhumis ("grounds" of "land") before attaining "Buddha-hood".
• These are extensions of the Eightfold Path.
• Bhumis are associated with the paramitas ("perfections").
• Paramitas are translated as "to cross over the other shore" and imply crossing from the "sea of suffering" to the "shore of happiness".
• A bodhisattva vow is stated as "May I attain Buddhahood for the benefit of all sentient beings".
• The ten bhumis are lifted from Avatamsaka Sutra (Flower Garland Sutra), a sutra that's influential in East Asia.
• The ten bhumis are:
• Pramudita (Joyful Land): Starts the journey joyful with the inspiration of enlightenment; Nature - Perfection of giving or generosity.
• Vimala-bhumi (Land of Purity): Purified of immoral conduct and dispositions; Nature - Perfection of morality.
• Prabhakari-bhumi (Luminous or Radiant Land): Purified of the "Three Poisons," namely greed, hate, and ignorance; Nature - Perfection of patience of forbearance.
• Archismati-bhumi (The Brilliant or Blazing Land): Burns away all false conceptions; Nature - Perfection of energy.
• Sudurjaya-bhumi (The Land That is Difficult to Conquer): Understands the Four Noble Truths and the Two Truths. Which are the conventional and the ultimate truths; Nature - Perfection of meditation.
• Abhiu (The Land Looking Forward to Wisdom): Sees that all phenomena are without self-essence and understands the nature of dependent origination; Nature - Perfection of wisdom.
• Durangama-bhumi (The Far-Reaching Land): acquires the power of skillful means (upaya) to help others realize enlightenment.
• Achala-bhumi (The Immovable Land): Can no longer be disturbed because "Buddha-hood" is within sight.
• Sadhumati-bhumi (The Land of Good Thoughts): Understands all dharmas and is able to teach others.
• Dharmamegha-bhumi (The Land of Dharma Clouds): Confirmed of the "Buddha-hood" and enters "Tushita Heaven" or the heaven of contented gods

Worship and Observances

• Buddhism integrates an assortment of religious practices and devotional rituals.
• This is done with the objective of aiding worshippers in their journey toward enlightenment and in bringing blessings to all.
• Buddhists and bodhisattvas pay their respect to the Buddha and bodhisattvas through prayer and chants.
• This includes Avalokiteshvara (compassion), Manjushri, and Amitabha (infinite light).
• Worshippers recite chants and undertake pilgrimages to sites of Buddhist importance.
• Meditational activities are fundamental in almost all forms of Buddhism.
• The practice of meditation is the only means to attain liberation for Theravada Buddhism and Zen Buddhism.
• The Lotus symbolizes purity; eight-spoke wheels represent dharma; hand gestures (mudras) are symbols for Mahayana Buddhists.

Subdivision

• Mahayana Buddhism consists of a variety of schools and families of religions.
• The teachings of Mahayana Buddhism have spread in various Asian nations.
• New concepts from these localities found articulation in many ritualistic practices and divine figures.
• The more philosophical side of Indian Mahayana Buddhism was developed within the context of the Madhyamika and the Yogachara schools.
• The Madhyamika (intermediate) adherents stress the transformation of human perception to handle the truth, real beyond duality.
• The Yogachara (practice of yoga) thinkers emphasize that the truth a human being perceives does not exist.

The Pure Land Sect

• Pure Land Buddhism began in India around the second century B.C.E. It spread to China by the second century C.E.
• Around the sixth century C.E. in Japan, the objective was to live in the "Pure Land of the West" or "Sukhavati".
• Reciting the name of the Amitabha with utmost attentiveness many times during the day may result in rebirth in paradise.
• In paradise, enlightenment is much easier.
• Amitabha, the god who supervises over the western paradise, is the focus of this sect.
• Individuals can experience delight in hearing Amitabha teach the dharma in preparation for their entry to nirvana when in Shukhavati.
• Buddhist sect utilizes chants and recitations, aside from meditations, to focus thoughts. Simplifying these practices in Japan, followers were attracted to the Jodo Buddhism of Jodo-Shu founded in 1175.
• People unable to carry out intricate mediational and ritualistic practices can attain enlightenment by reciting Amitabha. Shin Buddhism (Jodo Shinshu), founded by Shiran during the thirteenth century is an offshoot of Pure Land Buddhism.
• Shiran was a discipline of Honan, preached the primacy of faith, and considered chanting as having no value.

The Intuitive Sects

• The establishment of intuitive sects of Buddhism can be traced to work of an Indian monk, Bodhidharma, around sixth century C.E.
• Stories of Bodhidharma's life are shrouded in mysteries and legends.
• This concept entered China from India, then went to Korea and Japan.
• It became known as Ch'an in China.
• Ch'an Buddhism is closely related to Taoist philosophy because they are both kinds of mysticism.
• Zen, a blend of Indian Mahayana Buddhism and Daoism, reached its peak in Japan.
• Followers of this school are meditative Buddhists.
• Zen focuses on meditation as the path to liberation and is a monastic discipline.
• Dhyana is the word for "meditation" in India, ch'an in China, and zen in Japan.
• Intuitive sects emphasize that salvation is a personal matter, and assistance cannot be received from entities.
• One must realize inner truths of religion; most elements of religion are not essential for enlightenment.
• Modern European thinkers have been attracted to Zen Buddhism because of its concept on simplicity and intuitive inspiration.

The Rationalist Sects

• A rationalist Buddhist school of thought called T'ien-t'ai emerged around the sixth century C.E.
• Its name originated from a mountain in south-eastern China where Chih-I (or Zhiyi) lived.
• This sect taught that one must utilize reason and study the scriptures and doctrines to discover Buddhist truths.
• Chih-I emphasized that acts of studying and contemplation were both vital for spiritual enlightenment.
• Other means to reach this goal include mystical communion with the eternal, ascetic discipline, meritorious deeds, and simple faith.
• The teachings of Chih-I were introduced in Japan 806 C.E. by the monk Saicho, known as Tendai.
• Uicheon established the Cheontae Buddhist school in Korea during the eleventh century.

Socio-Political Sect

• Nichiren Daishonin, a Japanese Buddhist monk in the thirteenth century, taught that the path towards attaining enlightenment rested on devotion to the Lotus Sutra.
• Nichiren Buddhism teaches individuals must enhance themselves ("Human evolution") and improve the world.
• Enlightenment is accessible by opening one's inherent Buddha-nature.
• Nichiren himself considered a Buddha.
• Nichiren taught he alone understood Buddhist truths.
• Other Buddhist sects in Japan were corrupting people.
• Japanese society was in disarray.
• He made many influential enemies in Japan due to his missionary work and criticism of Buddhist sects.
• Nichiren reproached Japanese authority for failing to promote the Lotus Sutra promoting fraudulent Buddhist sects.
• Religion and patriotism were one.
• Some of his disciples were executed; Nichiren refused to renege on his principles and was given freedom in 1274.

Tibetan Buddhism

• Buddhism was officially introduced into Tibet around the seventh century C.E. during the reign of Songtsan Gampo.
• Songtsan Gampo is considered the founder of the Tibetan Empire.
• Bon, a pre-Buddhistic religion, was a religion like shamanism where spirits and deities were revered
• Bon was concerned with magic, incantations, and spells.
• Tibetan Buddhism uses magic as a coping mechanism.
• The four major schools of Tibetan Buddhism include Nyingma, Kagyu, Sakya, and Gelug.
• "Lamma" means "the superior one".
• The Dalai Lamma is the prominent face of Tibetan Buddhism.
• "Dalai" means "ocean" in Mongol, referring to the vastness and depth of the person.
• The current and 14th Dalai Lama is Tenzin Gyatso, the leader of the Gelug school.

Tibet Invasion

• For centuries, China and India claimed Tibet as part of their territories.
• China annexed Tibet in 1950 and negotiated the "Seventeenth-Point Agreement" with the Fourteenth Dalai Lama.
• In 1959, the Dalai Lama failed to oust China's puppet rule as the Tibetan uprising was defeated by the Chinese force.
• From 1958 to 1961, the implementation of Mao Zedong's "Great Leap Forward" led to 200,000 to 1,000,000 tragic Tibetan deaths.
• China's occupation of Tibet has led to many deaths of monks, nuns, and laity who wish to practice the religion.
• The Dalai Lama, who has been continuously visiting other countries preaching a message of hope and peace since 1959-1977, has received numerous awards.
• Awards include: Ramon Magsaysay Award (Community Leadership, 1959), Nobel Peace Prize (1989), U.S. Congressional Gold Medal (2007), and Templeton Prize (2012).

Engaged Activism

• Ritual suicides led by Buddhist monks have transpired in the 20th century as protest to governmental actions.
• A crisis occurred between Buddhists and the south Vietnamese Government, led by Ngo Dinh Diem in the 1960s.
• This had tremendous effect on politics, militancy, and religious tolerance.
• Thich Quang Duc, a Vietnamese Mahayana Buddhist monk, burned himself to death in a Saigon road intersection in 1963.
• Other monks followed his example.
• The Soka Gakkai, a religious movement based on the teachings of Nichiren Buddhism, was founded in 1930 in Japan.
• During WWII, the group temporarily disbanded, re-emerging after the war.
• Membership grew rapidly thanks to hardline recruitment.
• The Komeito, the Soka Gakkai political party, became the third most powerful in Japan.