Week 1 & 2 Content

Questions and Answers

A mental disorder is a syndrome characterised by:

Depression (correct)

Extreme anger

Heightened sensations

Disturbances in social skills (correct)

Disturbances in cognitions and behaviour (correct)

Which of the following is not one of the reasons experts have proposed a dimensional system of classification for the DSM-5?

There are high rates of comorbidity among psychiatric disorders.

It may improve the validity of the diagnostic system.

The point on a continuum at which a diagnosis is made is largely arbitrary.

Psychiatric disorders are shown to exist on a continuum of severity.

Psychiatric disorders are separate and independent. (correct)

Among mental health professionals, a crucial element of defining dysfunctional behaviour is:

If a person experiences elevated mood, self-esteem and creativity.

If a person defines his/her own behaviour as abnormal.

If an individual imposes suffering on his/her own self.

If a person engages in risky behaviours.

If a person's behaviour interferes with his/her ability to carry on with everyday life. (correct)

Psychoanalysts believe that defence mechanisms operate by:

Distorting impulses into acceptable forms or making them unconscious. Signup and view all the answers

The pattern and rates of co-occurrence among the mental disorders are thought to reflect:

The existence of higher-order dimensions of psychopathology. Signup and view all the answers

Critical psychologists argue that:

All of the given options are correct. Signup and view all the answers

Most modern explanations of mental disorder include:

A diathesis-stress model. Signup and view all the answers

Emil Kraepelin classified mental disorders in terms of their:

All of the given options are correct. Signup and view all the answers

The rational-emotive therapist Albert Ellis believed that people respond to:

Their interpretations of events. Signup and view all the answers

According to psychoanalytic theory, both normal and abnormal behaviours are the result of:

Conflict between the id, ego and superego. Signup and view all the answers

Humanistic theories and therapies are not:

Easy to measure and evaluate. Signup and view all the answers

Which one of the following has not been suggested as an advantage of using both a categorical and a dimensional system of diagnosis for psychiatric disorders?

Clinicians will find the combination system simpler to use than the current system. Signup and view all the answers

A functional analysis of behaviour:

Describes behaviour and its environmental determinants objectively. Signup and view all the answers

According to the biopsychosocial approach, human behaviour can best be explained by:

A variety of biological, psychological and sociocultural factors. Signup and view all the answers

According to psychoanalytic theory, the reasons for much human behaviour are:

Hidden in the unconscious mind. Signup and view all the answers

According to Barlow (2002), the hallmark of anxiety is:

False alarms. Signup and view all the answers

What changes to the diagnostic criteria for GAD were enacted in the DSM-5?

Removed the criterion that worry should be difficult to control. Signup and view all the answers

In the triple vulnerability model of anxiety, negative affectivity is:

Subjective distress involving anxiety, disgust and anger. Signup and view all the answers

The Rapee (1991) information processing model of the development of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) suggests that individuals with GAD selectively attend to:

Threatening information. Signup and view all the answers

Individuals with generalized anxiety disorder (GAD) typically experience worries about:

Both social threat and physical threat. Signup and view all the answers

Seligman's preparedness theory suggests that:

Humans are prepared to deal with certain threats. Signup and view all the answers

Development of a panic disorder requires:

All of the given options are correct. Signup and view all the answers

In vicarious acquisition, fear is acquired by:

All of the given options are correct. Signup and view all the answers

The most effective treatment for a specific phobia is:

In vivo exposure. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not true of benzodiazepine medications in the treatment of generalized anxiety disorder?

The anxiety symptoms do not return after the medication is stopped. Signup and view all the answers

The intolerance of uncertainty model identifies three processes that maintain generalized anxiety disorder symptoms. One of them is:

Holding negative beliefs about worry as a coping strategy. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not a change to anxiety disorders in the DSM-5?

Specific phobia and panic disorder are combined into one diagnosis. Signup and view all the answers

According to the Wells meta-cognitive model of generalized anxiety disorder (GAD), an individual with GAD is likely to have:

Only negative beliefs about worrying. Signup and view all the answers

According to Clark's model of panic disorder, people with this disorder:

Catastrophize bodily sensations as dangerous. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not typically true of GAD?

It is not comorbid with other disorders. Signup and view all the answers

If John spends eight hours a day checking that electrical appliances in his house are switched off, he is:

Being obsessive Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not recognised as a possible trigger of OCD?

Differences in the caudate nucleus and the basal ganglia Signup and view all the answers

According to Australian research, what is a common element of obsession in individuals with OCD?

All of the listed options are correct Signup and view all the answers

Trichotillomania is:

Recurrent pulling out of one's own hair Signup and view all the answers

Obsessive-compulsive disorder has a prevalence rate of about:

2-3 percent Signup and view all the answers

Diana is concerned about her physical appearance. She constantly thinks that her body is the wrong shape and size, despite having had cosmetic surgery. Diana is displaying signs of:

Body dysmorphic disorder Signup and view all the answers

According to the DSM-5, the presence of OCD is diagnosed using which criteria?

Obsessions and/or compulsions that cause distress, are time-consuming, interfere with social and occupational functioning and are not attributed to a substance, medical condition or other disorder Signup and view all the answers

Based on research evidence, which of the following is more likely to result in PTSD?

Interpersonal trauma Signup and view all the answers

Attempts to prevent PTSD with early intervention have been challenged by:

All of the given options are correct Signup and view all the answers

For posttraumatic stress disorder, the treatment with the best long-term outcome according to randomised controlled trials is:

Prolonged exposure Signup and view all the answers

In the psychological treatment of PTSD, which of the following is a component of cognitive behaviour therapy for PTSD?

All of the given options are correct Signup and view all the answers

In the treatment of PTSD, which pharmacological therapy has been shown to be effective in reducing symptoms?

All of the given options are correct Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following options is not an example of a re-experiencing symptom of PTSD?

Avoidance Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a change to the PTSD diagnosis in the DSM-5?

All of the given options are correct Signup and view all the answers

Aaron Beck's cognitive theory of depression suggests that in individuals with depression:

Dysfunctional negative cognitions result in depressive symptoms Signup and view all the answers

An Australian research team has argued for a subtyping model with three broad classes of depressive disorders: psychotic, melancholic and non-melancholic. Which of the following are theorised to be primarily biologically based?

Psychotic and melancholic depression Signup and view all the answers

Behavioural theories of depression focus on the environmental conditions and contingencies and suggest that depression is maintained because of:

Reduced opportunity for positive reinforcers Signup and view all the answers

Within six months following treatment, approximately what percentage of people with major depression will experience recovery?

50 percent Signup and view all the answers

A major depressive disorder with melancholy has all of the following features except:

Catatonic symptoms Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of people with a major depressive disorder also experience significant anxiety symptoms?

50 percent Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not a specifier to major depressive disorder?

Elevated mood (mixed features) Signup and view all the answers

The association between depression and physical/medical illness is not explained by:

Better immune functioning in people with depression Signup and view all the answers

The instability model of bipolar disorder relapse assumes four mechanisms that trigger relapse. They include all of the following except:

High state of anxiety Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not typically associated with a manic episode?

High trait anxiety Signup and view all the answers

Bipolar disorder is commonly comorbid with several other psychiatric illnesses, except:

Schizophrenia Signup and view all the answers

The goal dysregulation model suggests that mania is the result of:

Excessive goal engagement Signup and view all the answers

Pharmacological treatments for bipolar disorder vary according to:

Whether the patient is in an acute or maintenance phase of the condition Signup and view all the answers

Which of the options listed is a common measure of state/trait anxiety in Australia?

Behavioural Inhibition Scale/Behavioural Activation Scale (BIS/BAS) Signup and view all the answers

With regards to bipolar I disorder:

It is equally common in men and women Signup and view all the answers

For a diagnosis of bipolar disorder, a person must have experienced at least one:

Manic or hypomanic episode Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Mental Disorders Overview

A mental disorder is identified as a syndrome characterized by disturbances in cognitions and behavior.
Common features include extreme anger, disturbances in social skills, and depression.

Dimensional Classification in DSM-5

Experts advocate for a dimensional system as psychiatric disorders exist on a continuum of severity.
High rates of comorbidity among disorders indicate overlapping symptoms.
The point of diagnosis is often arbitrary, complicating treatment approaches.

Defining Dysfunctional Behavior

Critical in defining dysfunctional behavior is its interference with everyday functioning, rather than self-defined abnormality or risky actions.

Psychoanalytic Theory and Defense Mechanisms

Psychoanalysts assert that defense mechanisms distort impulses into acceptable forms or make them unconscious, aiding in coping with conflict.

Co-occurrence of Mental Disorders

The co-occurrence of mental disorders suggests the existence of higher-order dimensions of psychopathology, rather than independent causation.

Perspectives of Critical Psychologists

Critical psychologists view mental health professionals as potential agents of oppression and emphasize the need for contextual consideration of abnormal behavior.

Modern Explanations of Mental Disorders

Contemporary approaches include evolutionary, categorical, continuum, and diathesis-stress models for explaining mental disorders.

Emil Kraepelin's Classification

Emil Kraepelin classified mental disorders based on their symptoms, severity, causes, and adverse life events, influencing modern psychiatric diagnostics.

Albert Ellis and Rational-Emotive Therapy

According to Albert Ellis, people's responses are shaped more by their interpretations of events than by the events themselves.

Psychoanalytic Influences

Normal and abnormal behaviors arise from conflicts between the id, ego, and superego, as per psychoanalytic theory.

Humanistic Theories

Humanistic theories are characterized by their focus on individual choices and lack of pathologizing the individual, making them challenging to measure.

Combined Diagnostic Systems

Utilizing both categorical and dimensional diagnosis aims to blend familiarity with efficiency in assessing patient strengths and treatment progress.

Functional Analysis of Behavior

A functional analysis objectively describes behavior and its environmental determinants, focusing on observable interactions between individuals and their contexts.

Biopsychosocial Approach

Human behavior is best explained by considering a variety of biological, psychological, and sociocultural factors, as highlighted in the biopsychosocial model.

Anxiety and Biological Vulnerabilities

The development of anxiety disorders like panic disorder may involve specific and generalized psychological vulnerabilities, as well as biological factors.

Vicarious Acquisition of Fear

Fears can be acquired observationally, learning through witnessing others exhibit fear responses to threats.

Treatment of Specific Phobia

In vivo exposure is the most effective treatment for specific phobias, focusing on real-life experiences rather than mere discussion or imagination.

Benzodiazepine Use in Anxiety

Benzodiazepines reduce anxiety quickly but can lead to tolerance, dependence, and a return of symptoms post-treatment, a significant consideration in managing Generalized Anxiety Disorder (GAD).

Intolerance of Uncertainty Model

This model identifies maintaining processes for GAD symptoms, including negative beliefs about worry as a coping strategy.

DSM-5 Changes for Anxiety Disorders

Changes in the DSM-5 include the separation of agoraphobia from panic disorder and distinctions among social phobia types while introducing specific diagnostic duration requirements.

Wells Meta-Cognitive Model for GAD

Individuals with GAD often hold both positive and negative beliefs about worrying, impacting their coping strategies and symptom management.

Clark's Model of Panic Disorder

Individuals with panic disorder often avoid places where attacks may occur, experience high anxiety levels, and catastrophize bodily sensations as threatening.

Generalized Anxiety Disorder Characteristics

GAD is characterized by chronicity without treatment and higher prevalence in women, often leading to other comorbid disorders, with many sufferers not seeking help.

Obsessive-Compulsive Disorder (OCD)

Spending excessive time checking appliances may indicate obsessive behavior or compulsiveness.
Common triggers for OCD include misinterpretation of intrusive thoughts, brain structure differences, ignored obsessive thoughts, and behavioral responses to perceived threats.
Australian research highlights common obsessions in OCD, including fears of contamination, violence, and fears of losing control.

Trichotillomania involves compulsively pulling out one’s own hair and is linked to managing anxiety or negative emotions.
Body Dysmorphic Disorder features excessive concern about body image despite cosmetic alterations.

Prevalence and Diagnosis

OCD has a prevalence rate of approximately 2–3%.
DSM-5 criteria for OCD diagnosis include obsessions and/or compulsions that significantly interfere with social, occupational functioning, and cause distress.

Post-Traumatic Stress Disorder (PTSD)

PTSD is more likely after interpersonal trauma compared to natural disasters or accidents.
Early intervention for PTSD prevention is challenged due to variations in trauma, low PTSD development rates, and natural recovery processes.

PTSD Treatment

Prolonged exposure therapy shows the best long-term outcomes in treating PTSD.
Cognitive Behavioral Therapy (CBT) for PTSD includes components such as psychoeducation, anxiety management, cognitive restructuring, and imaginal exposure.
Effective medications for reducing PTSD symptoms include selective serotonin reuptake inhibitors.

PTSD Symptoms

Notable re-experiencing symptoms of PTSD include intrusive memories, flashbacks, nightmares, and reliving events.
Avoidance is not classified as a re-experiencing symptom.

Changes in PTSD Diagnosis (DSM-5)

The DSM-5 includes acute stress disorder and modifies criteria for PTSD categorization, allowing for broader definitions of trauma reactions.

Depression Theories

Aaron Beck’s cognitive theory posits that negative cognitions cause depressive symptoms.
Behavioral theories emphasize the role of reduced opportunities for positive reinforcement in maintaining depression.

Recovery and Comorbidity

Approximately 50% of individuals with major depression experience recovery within six months post-treatment.
Major depressive disorder often coexists with anxiety disorders.

Major Depressive Disorder Features

Melancholic features of major depression include an inability to experience pleasure, early-morning waking, excessive guilt, and significant weight loss.

Bipolar Disorder

Bipolar disorder is associated with manic states characterized by inflated mood, grandiosity, and risk-taking behaviors.
Common comorbidities of bipolar disorder include anxiety disorders, OCD, PTSD, and schizophrenia.
The goal dysregulation model suggests that mania results from excessive goal engagement.

Treatment Variability

Treatment strategies for bipolar disorder depend on whether the patient is in an acute or maintenance phase.

State/Trait Anxiety Measurement

A common measure of state/trait anxiety in Australia includes the Behavioral Inhibition Scale/Behavioral Activation Scale (BIS/BAS).

Gender Differences in Bipolar Disorder

Bipolar I disorder shows equal prevalence among men and women, with factors influencing diagnosis including manic or hypomanic episode history.

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