Logical Fallacies & Persuasive Techniques

• Study notes on logical fallacies and persuasive techniques.

Ad Hominem

• This fallacy attacks the person making an argument instead of addressing the argument itself.
• It's often used to divert attention and discredit the person.
• Using ad hominem attacks weakens an argument by shifting focus from facts to the person.
• Avoiding ad hominem attacks is important for objective evaluation.
• Recognizing ad hominem fallacies helps in critical analysis of arguments.

Ambiguity

• Refers to language with multiple interpretations, leading to confusion.
• Ambiguity can be caused by vague wording or words with multiple meanings.
• Ambiguity is often found in literature, jokes and riddles.
• Context, tone, and extra information helps to clarify it's meaning.

Appeal To Emotion

• A persuasive technique that influences feelings rather than logic.
• It plays on emotions like fear, love, anger, or pity.
• May manipulate the audience without factual evidence, leading to biased choices.
• Commonly used in advertising and political speeches.

Burden Of Proof

• The obligation to provide evidence and convince the court of a claim.
• It typically rests with the party making a claim.
• Failure to meet the burden of proof can result in a decision against the claimant.
• The standard of proof varies based on the type of case.
• In criminal cases, the prosecution must prove guilt beyond a reasonable doubt.

False Cause

• A logical fallacy that incorrectly assumes one event causes another.
• Often seen in superstitions and pseudoscience.
• It overlooks other possible explanations.
• Can lead to inaccurate conclusions and bad decisions.
• Critical thinking skills are crucial in identifying and avoiding this fallacy.

Loaded Question

• A fallacy where the questioner includes a presupposition that their position is correct.
• It's used to manipulate the responder into accepting the questioner's viewpoint.
• A loaded question can force the responder to admit something they may not want to.
• Considered unethical and dishonest in many contexts.
• Identifying and avoiding loaded questions is important for critical thinking.

Personal Incredulity

• The fallacy of rejecting a claim simply because one finds it hard to understand or believe.
• Can hinder critical thinking by dismissing evidence based on personal perspective.
• Involves a lack of acceptance due to a lack of personal understanding or bias.
• It's important to distinguish personal disbelief from actual evidence.
• Examining evidence objectively and considering logical arguments can combat this.

Slippery Slope

• The argument that accepting one event will lead to increasingly negative consequences.
• This assumes that a small action will inevitably result in disaster.
• Often used in debates to discourage compromise.
• It relies on the idea that there is no stopping point once the initial action is taken.
• Critics argue that it is often a scare tactic rather than a valid argument.

Special Pleading

• A fallacy where someone applies a double standard or makes an unjustified exception for themselves.
• Also known as ad hoc reasoning or moving the goalposts.
• It involves manipulating information to support one's position while dismissing counterarguments.
• Often arises when defending an unfounded belief.
• Avoiding it involves applying consistent standards of reasoning to all claims.

Strawman

• A technique where someone distorts an opponent's argument to make it easier to attack.
• It is used to misrepresent the opponent's viewpoint.
• Typically involves oversimplification or exaggeration.
• Allows the attacker to appear to have countered the opponent's actual argument.
• Recognizing strawman fallacies helps in critically analyzing arguments.

The Fallacy Fallacy

• Occurs when one assumes an argument is automatically wrong because it contains a logical fallacy.
• Understanding logic is essential to identify fallacies accurately.
• Critical thinking skills help in avoiding this fallacy.
• It's important to address the underlying argument even if a fallacy is present.
• Be cautious not to dismiss an entire argument solely based on a fallacy.

Tu Quoque

• Latin for 'you too', where one defends wrongdoing by pointing out similar behavior in others.
• Used to deflect criticism by accusing the accuser of similar behavior.
• Focuses on attacking the person making the argument rather than addressing the argument.
• Can create a diversion from the issue being discussed.
• Involves shifting focus from the topic to the accuser's credibility or actions.