Linguistics: Equivalence and Word Formation

The real or main part of something, not other parts before, after, or near to it.

A grammatical case that shows possession or relationship.

A noun or noun phrase in the genitive case.

The form of the genitive case where an apostrophe and 's' are added to the noun.

The form of the genitive case where 'of' is used to show possession or relationship.

Used with animate nouns (people, animals) and geographical names.

Used with inanimate nouns personified (ships, planes, cars), nouns denoting a person, and to express time, distance, and amount.

It is the form most commonly used for nouns ending in -s.

Determiners are words that precede a noun and specify its quantity, number, or definiteness. They establish the context for the noun by providing information about its identity and scope.

Determiners that specify a precise number, amount, or quantity, such as 'two', 'three', 'a few', or 'all'.

The definite article 'the' refers to a specific noun already known or identified. For example, 'the book.'

The indefinite articles 'a' and 'an' are used to introduce a noun for the first time or when it's of an unspecified type. For example, 'a book'.

Determiners such as 'every', 'each', 'some', and 'any' which often combine with quantifiers or numerals.

Examples in English include 'both', 'all', and 'half', which function as determiners before nouns.

English has a clear distinction between determiners used with countable nouns (e.g., 'many', 'a few') and those used with uncountable nouns (e.g., 'much', 'little').

Polish determiners generally have fewer restrictions than English, allowing many to be used with both countable and uncountable nouns.

Each refers to two items, while every can refer to more than two. "Each cheek" means two specific cheeks, while "every day" implies multiple days. Use singular verbs with "each" and "every".

When "each of" precedes a plural noun or pronoun, use a singular verb. Example: "Each of my friends is coming." The subject is "each," not the plural "friends".

Use a plural verb when "each" follows a plural noun or pronoun and indicates individual actions. Example: "My brothers were each given a scholarship."

Use "neither" instead of "each" in negative statements. Example: "Neither of them did it." It implies none of the group did the action.

Semantic Fields refer to categories of vocabulary related to specific themes or topics, like emotions, sports, or movement. Learning vocabulary within fields can be challenging, as words may have subtle nuanced meanings.

Both "as" and "like" express similarity, but use differs. "Like + noun phrase" compares nouns, while "as + clause" introduces a comparison with an action.

Adverbs often end in -ly (proudly, briefly), but some, called 'flat adverbs,' have the same form as their adjective counterparts. Example: "drive fast".

Syntax is the grammatical structure of sentences. It governs how words combine into phrases, and phrases into sentences. English follows the Subject-Verb-Object (SVO) order.