Biol 121 overall

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Questions and Answers

What is the characteristic of the viral genome in the Baltimore system of virus classification?

It is already in the form of mRNA

It can be directly translated into protein

It must be converted into mRNA which can be read by ribosomes (correct)

It can be directly transcribed into mRNA

What is the primary mechanism by which viruses attach to host cells during the entry stage?

Binding to receptors on the host cell surface (correct)

Fusion of envelope with host membrane

Injection of nucleic acid

Endocytosis

What is the term for the process by which viruses release their genetic material into the host cell?

Endocytosis

Fusion of envelope with host membrane

Transcription

Injection of nucleic acid (correct)

During which stage of the virus life cycle is the synthesis of mRNA occurs?

Replication Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of the latent infection pathway?

Lytic infection Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the viral genome in the +dsDNA category of the Baltimore system?

It is a double-stranded DNA Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of viral glycoprotein during the exit stage?

To insert viral glycoprotein on the surface of the host membrane Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process by which viruses release their genetic material from the host cell?

Lysis Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism by which lysogenic phages integrate into the host's chromosome?

By producing repressor protein that blocks lytic genes Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of using bacteriophage enzyme in biomedicine?

To control the amount of bacteria in the environment Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the virion capsid structure in viruses?

To protect the viral genome from the host's immune system Signup and view all the answers

During the replication cycle of bacteriophages, what is the primary function of the maturation stage?

To release new virions from the host cell Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of using bacteriophages in biomedicine?

To control the amount of bacteria in the environment Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between lytic and lysogenic phages?

Lytic phages kill the host cell, while lysogenic phages integrate into the host's chromosome Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)?

To classify viruses based on their molecular composition Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the adsorption stage in the bacteriophage life cycle?

To bind to the host cell's receptors Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the capsid in a virus?

To protect the nucleic acid from being digested Signup and view all the answers

What type of virus can infect other viruses?

Virophage Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a type of host for viruses?

Virus Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of penicillin in biomedicine?

To act as an antibiotic Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the extracellular virus particle?

Virion Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the process by which a virus infects a host cell and replicates?

Replication Signup and view all the answers

What is the shape of the capsid of some viruses?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of statin in biomedicine?

To inhibit the biosynthesis of cholesterol Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the viable cell that doesn't grow in conventional media?

Viable but non-culturable bacteria Signup and view all the answers

What is the method of counting cells that involves forming colonies on a solid medium?

Culturable count Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the environmental factor that affects bacterial growth, and has an optimal range for different bacteria?

Temperature Signup and view all the answers

How do bacteria divide during the exponential growth phase?

Binary fission Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the type of bacteria that uses light energy for metabolism?

Phototrophs Signup and view all the answers

What is the method of counting cells that involves using a fluorescent dye?

Viable count Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the type of bacteria that lives in habitats with high salt concentrations?

Halophiles Signup and view all the answers

What is the method of measuring bacterial growth that involves serial dilutions and plating?

Serial dilution Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic feature of Archaea?

They have a proteinaceous coat Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the cell membrane in microbes?

To facilitate nutrient exchange and respiration Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of flagella in microbes?

To facilitate locomotion Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the cell wall in microbes?

To provide structural support and maintain shape Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of plasmids in microbes?

To carry genes that provide selective advantage Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of endospores in microbes?

To survive for long periods under unfavourable conditions Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the gram-positive cell wall?

It has a thicker peptidoglycan layer Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of fimbriae and pili in microbes?

To facilitate recognition and attachment Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of calcium dipicolinate in Cyanobacteria?

Binds free water and helps dehydrate cells Signup and view all the answers

Which type of culture media has an exact chemical composition?

Chemically defined media Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of micronutrients in bacterial nutrition?

Small amounts required Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the lag phase in bacterial growth?

Cell adaptation to new environment Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of using nutrient agar plates in bacterial growth?

Purification of bacterial cultures Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of bacterial growth in batch culture?

Closed system with limited nutrient supply Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Cyanobacteria?

Requires large amounts of micronutrients Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the stationary phase in bacterial growth?

Cell growth slows down and reaches equilibrium Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a viable but non-culturable bacterium?

It is unable to grow in any medium Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of using direct microscopic count to measure bacterial growth?

It is a fast and easy method Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a heterotrophic bacterium?

It is unable to produce its own food and relies on external sources Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of serial dilution in measuring bacterial growth?

To obtain a culturable count of bacteria Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary environmental factor that affects bacterial growth and has an optimal range for different bacteria?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a phototrophic bacterium?

It is able to produce its own food using light energy Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary method of counting cells that involves using a fluorescent dye?

Viable count Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a halophilic bacterium?

It is able to grow in habitats with high salt concentrations Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of high salt concentration on water activity?

Decreases water activity through osmosis Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between opportunistic and primary pathogens?

Primary pathogens cause diseases in healthy individuals, while opportunistic pathogens cause diseases in individuals with impaired immune systems Signup and view all the answers

What is the process by which bacterial pathogens establish a stable population in the host?

Colonization Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the ability of a pathogen to cause disease?

Pathogenicity Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the degree or intensity of pathogenicity?

Virulence Signup and view all the answers

What is the environment where bacterial pathogens live and reproduce in large amounts?

Reservoir Signup and view all the answers

What is the process by which bacteria attach to the host surface?

Adherence Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the type of bacteria that lives in habitats with high salt concentrations?

Halophile Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of a higher SA/Vol ratio in microbial cells?

Increased rate of nutrient exchange and growth Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the proton motive force in microbial cells?

Energy conservation during respiration Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of Gram-positive cell walls?

Presence of a thick peptidoglycan layer Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of plasmids in microbial cells?

Carrying genes for antibiotic resistance Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of endospores in microbial cells?

Survival during unfavourable conditions Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of fimbriae and pili in microbial cells?

Recognition and attachment to surfaces Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of the exponential growth phase in microbial cells?

Increasing growth rate Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary method of counting microbial cells that involves forming colonies on a solid medium?

Plate counting Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the cell wall of fungi?

Made of chitin and polysaccharides Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of enzyme secretion in fungi?

To digest and absorb organic material Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of yeasts?

Single-celled, spherical and asexually reproduced Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of hyphae in fungi?

To absorb nutrients from the environment Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of dimorphic fungi?

They can transition between yeast and mold forms Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of sporangia in zygomycetes?

To produce asexual spores Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of fungi nutrition?

They are heterotrophic and absorb nutrients from their surroundings Signup and view all the answers

What is the mode of reproduction in yeast?

Asexual reproduction by budding Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of calcium dipicolinate in Cyanobacteria?

Bind free water and help dehydrate cells Signup and view all the answers

Which type of culture media has an exact chemical composition?

Chemically defined media Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of micronutrients in bacterial nutrition?

Required in small quantities Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the lag phase in bacterial growth?

Cell adaptation to new environment Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of using nutrient agar plates?

To purify bacterial cultures Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of bacterial growth in batch culture?

Closed system with limited nutrients Signup and view all the answers

What is the assumption made in the culturable count method of measuring bacterial growth?

Culturable cells will grow and divide to yield one colony Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the type of bacteria that uses light energy for metabolism?

Phototrophs Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the stationary phase in bacterial growth?

Nutrient depletion and cell maintenance Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary difference between total count and viable count in cell counting?

Total count includes dead cells, viable count only includes live cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a viable but non-culturable bacterium?

Does not grow on any medium Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of serial dilution in measuring bacterial growth?

To dilute the culture to a suitable concentration for plating Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a viable but non-culturable bacterium?

It is viable but does not grow in conventional media Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of using direct microscopic count to measure bacterial growth?

It is faster and easier than other methods Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the type of bacteria that lives in habitats with high salt concentrations?

Halophiles Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of bacterial growth in the exponential phase?

Growth rate increases exponentially Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of endospores in microbes?

To survive for long periods under unfavourable conditions Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of the lag phase in bacterial growth?

Cell adaptation to new environment Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of bacterial fission?

To divide and produce new cells Signup and view all the answers

What type of culture media has an exact chemical composition?

Defined media Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of micronutrients in bacterial nutrition?

Required in small quantities Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the cell membrane in microbes?

To regulate nutrient uptake Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a viable but non-culturable bacterium?

Cannot grow on any medium Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the cell wall in microbes?

To provide structural support Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary purpose of the lag phase in bacterial growth?

Adaptation to environment and enzyme production Signup and view all the answers

What type of culture media has an exact chemical composition?

Defined media Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of bacterial growth in batch culture?

Exponential growth followed by decline Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of calcium dipicolinate in Cyanobacteria?

Sporulation Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of fimbriae and pili in microbes?

Adherence to host cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary advantage of using direct microscopic count to measure bacterial growth?

Accurate cell count and viability assessment Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of a viable but non-culturable bacterium?

Metabolic activity without cell division Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the stationary phase in bacterial growth?

Cell maintenance and survival Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the formation of spores in fungi?

To disperse and colonize new areas Signup and view all the answers

During which growth phase do fungi undergo rapid cell division and produce aerial extensions?

Log phase Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism of cell division in yeasts?

Budding Signup and view all the answers

What type of culture media is used to grow fungi that require specific nutrients?

Defined media Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of chitin in fungal cell walls?

To provide structural support Signup and view all the answers

Which type of fungi has a heterotrophic mode of nutrition?

Saprophytes Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of hyphae in filamentous fungi?

To absorb nutrients Signup and view all the answers

Which type of fungi has a diploid state during zygospore formation?

Zygomycetes Signup and view all the answers

Cyanobacteria are sensitive to extreme conditions.

False Signup and view all the answers

Nutrient agar plates are used for the purification of bacterial cultures.

True Signup and view all the answers

Bacteria in the stationary phase are in a state of rapid growth.

False Signup and view all the answers

Macronutrients are required in small quantities for bacterial growth.

False Signup and view all the answers

Chemically defined media has an exact chemical composition.

True Signup and view all the answers

The lag phase is the period of rapid bacterial growth.

False Signup and view all the answers

Micronutrients are required in large quantities for bacterial growth.

False Signup and view all the answers

Batch culture is an open system, where nutrients can be added or removed.

False Signup and view all the answers

Binary fission of bacteria results in four daughter cells.

False Signup and view all the answers

The viable count of bacteria measures the total number of bacteria in a sample.

False Signup and view all the answers

Culturable count of bacteria is the same as viable count.

False Signup and view all the answers

Turbidity measurement is used to measure the growth of bacteria in liquid media.

True Signup and view all the answers

Heterotrophs are bacteria that obtain energy from light.

False Signup and view all the answers

Serial dilution is a method used to measure bacterial growth.

True Signup and view all the answers

Halophiles are bacteria that grow in high-temperature habitats.

False Signup and view all the answers

Viable but non-culturable bacteria are bacteria that are dead.

False Signup and view all the answers

The lag phase is the stage of bacterial growth where the bacteria divide rapidly.

False Signup and view all the answers

The stationary phase is characterized by a decrease in bacterial growth rate due to nutrient depletion.

True Signup and view all the answers

Endospores are formed during the exponential growth phase.

False Signup and view all the answers

Plasmids are required for bacterial growth and reproduction.

False Signup and view all the answers

Nutrient agar plates are used to measure bacterial growth in batch culture.

False Signup and view all the answers

The primary function of the cell wall is to provide structural support and maintain the shape of the cell.

True Signup and view all the answers

Calcium dipicolinate is involved in the formation of endospores in bacteria.

False Signup and view all the answers

The SA/Vol ratio affects the growth rate of bacteria.

True Signup and view all the answers

In extreme salt concentrations, water activity increases through osmosis.

False Signup and view all the answers

Pathogenicity refers to the degree of toxicity and invasiveness of a pathogen.

True Signup and view all the answers

Colonization of a host by a pathogen always leads to disease.

False Signup and view all the answers

Opportunistic pathogens can cause disease in individuals with a healthy immune system.

False Signup and view all the answers

Bacterial growth in a batch culture follows a linear pattern.

False Signup and view all the answers

Endospores are formed by all types of bacteria.

False Signup and view all the answers

Nutrient agar plates are an example of a selective culture media.

False Signup and view all the answers

Calcium dipicolinate is a characteristic component of bacterial spores.

True Signup and view all the answers

Fungi have a peptidoglycan cell wall.

False Signup and view all the answers

Yeasts are always multicellular.

False Signup and view all the answers

Filamentous fungi have a polarized tip growth.

True Signup and view all the answers

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a type of filamentous fungus.

False Signup and view all the answers

Heterotrophs obtain their nutrients by photosynthesis.

False Signup and view all the answers

Zygomycetes have septate hyphae.

False Signup and view all the answers

Fungi reproduce solely through asexual means.

False Signup and view all the answers

Glomus spp. are a type of bacterium.

False Signup and view all the answers

Bacterial growth is measured by viable count.

False Signup and view all the answers

Halophiles grow in habitats with low salt concentrations.

False Signup and view all the answers

Autotrophs obtain energy from light.

False Signup and view all the answers

Binary fission is a characteristic of the lag phase.

False Signup and view all the answers

Turbidity is a measure of bacterial growth by light absorbance.

True Signup and view all the answers

Serial dilution is a method of direct microscopic count.

False Signup and view all the answers

Culturable count measures the number of colonies formed on agar plates.

True Signup and view all the answers

Viable but non-culturable bacteria do not grow in conventional media.

True Signup and view all the answers

Cyanobacteria contain calcium dipicolinate, which helps to dehydrate the cell by releasing free water.

True Signup and view all the answers

In batch culture, bacterial growth occurs in an open system with continuous nutrient addition.

False Signup and view all the answers

The log phase of bacterial growth is characterized by a slow growth rate.

False Signup and view all the answers

Microelements are required in large amounts by bacterial cells.

False Signup and view all the answers

Complex media has an exact chemical composition.

False Signup and view all the answers

Bacterial cells can grow in the absence of nutrient agar plates.

True Signup and view all the answers

The stationary phase of bacterial growth is characterized by a rapid growth rate.

False Signup and view all the answers

All bacteria require the same amount of micronutrients for growth.

False Signup and view all the answers

Endospores are a type of inclusion found in bacterial cells.

False Signup and view all the answers

During the exponential growth phase, bacterial cells divide by binary fission.

True Signup and view all the answers

Most alkaliphiles are halotolerant.

False Signup and view all the answers

Bacteria can use light energy for metabolism through the process of chemosynthesis.

False Signup and view all the answers

Nutrient agar plates are a type of selective media.

False Signup and view all the answers

Pathogens can cause diseases in the presence of a healthy immune system.

False Signup and view all the answers

Reservoirs are where bacterial pathogens are eliminated.

False Signup and view all the answers

The lag phase of bacterial growth is the period of rapid cell division.

False Signup and view all the answers

Adherence is the establishment of a stable population of bacteria in the host.

False Signup and view all the answers

Fimbriae are involved in the attachment of bacteria to surfaces.

True Signup and view all the answers

Spore formation is a type of binary fission in bacteria.

False Signup and view all the answers

Opportunistic pathogens can cause diseases in the absence of immune impairment.

False Signup and view all the answers

High salt concentration leads to higher water activity.

False Signup and view all the answers

Micronutrients are essential for bacterial growth in very large quantities.

False Signup and view all the answers

Transfer to the host occurs through indirect host-host transmission only.

False Signup and view all the answers

Infection always leads to disease.

False Signup and view all the answers

Fungi can produce haploid spores through a process of meiosis.

True Signup and view all the answers

Filamentous fungi are typically multicellular.

True Signup and view all the answers

Yeasts are always single-celled organisms.

True Signup and view all the answers

Fungi can absorb nutrients from their environment through a process of heterotrophy.

True Signup and view all the answers

Zygomycetes are the largest phylum of fungi.

False Signup and view all the answers

Fungi can reproduce sexually through a process of heterothallism.

True Signup and view all the answers

Fungi have a cell wall composed of chitin and polysaccharides.

True Signup and view all the answers

Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a type of filamentous fungus.

False Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Viral Replication Cycle

Adsorption: Virus attaches to receptors
Penetration: Inject nucleic acid into host cell
Replication: Synthesis of viral material and combine
Maturation: Release of new virions
Release: Lytic and lysogenic/temperature phage

Lytic and Lysogenic/Temperature Phage

Lytic phage: Kill host cell
Lysogenic/Temperature phage:
- Prophage: Integrate into host’s chromosome
- Replicates with host cell
- Stresses → reactivate the lytic cycle

Phages in Biomedicine

EBI: Used on unprocessed foods
Bacteriophage enzyme
Display of immunodominant region of HBV on bacteriophage H7

Quantifying Bacteriophage

Agar plate with E. coli

Viruses Benefits and Disadvantages

Advantages:
- Planetary force
- Control the amount of bacteria
Disadvantages:
- Impact on health
- Impact of microbes

Taxonomy for Viruses

International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)
Molecular composition of genome
Sequence similarity
Virion/capsid structure
Presence of an envelope
Host range
Pathogenicity

Baltimore System of Virus Classification

Viral genome must make mRNA which can be read by ribosomes
mRNA: +ssRNA (ribosome ready)
+dsDNA
Complementary: - (minus)

Infection Pathway

Transformation into tumour cell
Lysis
Persistent infection (Slow release of virus, X cell death)
Latent infection (→ Lytic infection)

Virus Life Cycle

Entry: Viruses attach to receptors
Replication: Viral protein synthesis of mRNA, viral genome generation
Exit:
- Virus inserts viral glycoprotein on the surface of the membrane
- Capsid migrates to the cell membrane

Fungi as Drugs

Penicillin (antibiotics)
Statin: Inhibit biosynthesis of cholesterol, reduce plasma cholesterol level

General Properties, Structures, and Hosts of Viruses

Viruses: Simple, minuscule, infectious, obligate intracellular parasite comprising genetic material surrounded by a protein coat deprived from a host cell membrane
Genetic material of virus: DNA & RNA
Virus existence in 2 states:
- Intracellular virus (After infecting the host cell) [Replication]
- Extracellular Virion (Outside host cell) [Transmission]

Shapes of Capsid

Helical
Polyhedral
Binal
Function of capsid:
- Protects nucleic acid from being digested
- Attaches to the host cell
- Penetrates host cell membrane

Cyanobacteria

Highly resistant to extreme conditions
Contain calcium dipicolinate, which binds free water and helps dehydrate the cell
Some cyanobacteria contain iron and have a special protein that protects their DNA, allowing them to orient themselves in magnetic fields

Bacterial Nutrition and Growth

Nutrients provide elements for the synthesis of cell material
Macronutrients are required in large amounts and include elements like C, O, H, N, P, S, K, Ca, and Mg
Micronutrients are required in small amounts and include elements like Cu, Zn, Ni, V, and Se
Bacteria can grow in culture media, which provides all the necessary elements for growth
Culture media can be chemically defined, complex, or a nutrient agar plate
Bacteria can also grow in liquid media, such as Erlenmeyer flasks or test tubes

Bacterial Growth Phases

Bacterial growth occurs in four phases: lag, log, stationary, and death
The lag phase is a period of slow growth, followed by the log phase, where growth is rapid and exponential
The stationary phase is where growth slows down due to resource depletion, and the death phase is where cell death occurs
Bacterial growth can be measured using direct microscopic count, culturable count, or serial dilution

Metabolic Classification of Bacteria

Bacteria can be classified based on their carbon and energy resources
Heterotrophs use organic compounds as their carbon source, while autotrophs use CO2
Phototrophs use light as their energy source, while chemotrophs use chemical reactions
Environmental factors like oxygen, temperature, pH, and osmolarity can affect bacterial growth and metabolism

Microbiology

Microbiology is the study of organisms that are too small to be seen by the unaided eye
Microorganisms can be beneficial or harmful to humans
Microbiology involves the study of diseases caused by pathogens, and the control of these diseases through vaccination, antibiotics, and personal hygiene

Three Domains of Life

The three domains of life are Eukaryota, Bacteria, and Archaea
Eukaryotes have one or more cells with a nucleus and well-developed intracellular compartments
Bacteria are prokaryotic microorganisms that are typically small and simple in structure
Archaea are prokaryotes that are similar to bacteria in size and simplicity, but have distinct molecular characteristics

Cell Structure and Function

Cell membrane functions include barrier function, respiration/photosynthesis, and energy conservation
Cell wall determines and maintains the shape of the cell, and protects it from osmotic lysis
Gram-positive and Gram-negative cell walls have different structures and functions
Capsule, fimbriae, and pili are important structures involved in bacterial attachment and protection

Bacterial Cytoplasm

Nucleoid is an irregularly shaped region that contains the genetic material
Plasmids are small, closed circular DNA molecules that exist and replicate independently of the chromosome
Cellular inclusions are granules of material that are reserved for future use
Endospores are highly resistant structures that can survive for long periods of time

How Bacteria Cause Diseases

Most bacteria are harmless, and the host immune system prevents them from causing disease
Pathogens are organisms that cause diseases by impairing or interfering with normal physiological activities
Pathogenicity is the ability to cause disease, and virulence is the degree of pathogenicity
Infection and disease are different, with infection being the presence of a pathogen, and disease being the impairment of normal physiological activities

Steps in Infectious Diseases

The steps in infectious diseases include the reservoir, transfer to host, colonization, adherence, and infection
The reservoir is where the bacterial pathogen lives and reproduces, and can be a human, animal, or environment
Transfer to host can occur through direct or indirect contact, or through vectors or vehicles

Fungi

Fungi are eukaryotes that are extremely diverse, with cell walls made of chitin and polysaccharides
Fungi can be saprophytes, necrophytes, or biotrophs, and can reproduce both sexually and asexually
Fungi can be single-celled or multicellular, and can form colonies or mycelium
Yeasts are single-celled fungi that reproduce asexually by budding, while filamentous fungi are multicellular and reproduce by forming spores

Cyanobacteria

Highly resistant to extreme conditions
Contain calcium dipicolinate, which binds free water and helps dehydrate the cell
Some cyanobacteria contain iron and have a special protein that protects their DNA, allowing them to orient themselves in magnetic fields

Bacterial Nutrition and Growth

Nutrients provide elements for the synthesis of cell material
Macronutrients are required in large amounts and include elements like C, O, H, N, P, S, K, Ca, and Mg
Micronutrients are required in small amounts and include elements like Cu, Zn, Ni, V, and Se
Bacteria can grow in culture media, which provides all the necessary elements for growth
Culture media can be chemically defined, complex, or a nutrient agar plate
Bacteria can also grow in liquid media, such as Erlenmeyer flasks or test tubes

Bacterial Growth Phases

Bacterial growth occurs in four phases: lag, log, stationary, and death
The lag phase is a period of slow growth, followed by the log phase, where growth is rapid and exponential
The stationary phase is where growth slows down due to resource depletion, and the death phase is where cell death occurs
Bacterial growth can be measured using direct microscopic count, culturable count, or serial dilution

Metabolic Classification of Bacteria

Bacteria can be classified based on their carbon and energy resources
Heterotrophs use organic compounds as their carbon source, while autotrophs use CO2
Phototrophs use light as their energy source, while chemotrophs use chemical reactions
Environmental factors like oxygen, temperature, pH, and osmolarity can affect bacterial growth and metabolism

Microbiology

Microbiology is the study of organisms that are too small to be seen by the unaided eye
Microorganisms can be beneficial or harmful to humans
Microbiology involves the study of diseases caused by pathogens, and the control of these diseases through vaccination, antibiotics, and personal hygiene

Three Domains of Life

The three domains of life are Eukaryota, Bacteria, and Archaea
Eukaryotes have one or more cells with a nucleus and well-developed intracellular compartments
Bacteria are prokaryotic microorganisms that are typically small and simple in structure
Archaea are prokaryotes that are similar to bacteria in size and simplicity, but have distinct molecular characteristics

Cell Structure and Function

Cell membrane functions include barrier function, respiration/photosynthesis, and energy conservation
Cell wall determines and maintains the shape of the cell, and protects it from osmotic lysis
Gram-positive and Gram-negative cell walls have different structures and functions
Capsule, fimbriae, and pili are important structures involved in bacterial attachment and protection

Bacterial Cytoplasm

Nucleoid is an irregularly shaped region that contains the genetic material
Plasmids are small, closed circular DNA molecules that exist and replicate independently of the chromosome
Cellular inclusions are granules of material that are reserved for future use
Endospores are highly resistant structures that can survive for long periods of time

How Bacteria Cause Diseases

Most bacteria are harmless, and the host immune system prevents them from causing disease
Pathogens are organisms that cause diseases by impairing or interfering with normal physiological activities
Pathogenicity is the ability to cause disease, and virulence is the degree of pathogenicity
Infection and disease are different, with infection being the presence of a pathogen, and disease being the impairment of normal physiological activities

Steps in Infectious Diseases

The steps in infectious diseases include the reservoir, transfer to host, colonization, adherence, and infection
The reservoir is where the bacterial pathogen lives and reproduces, and can be a human, animal, or environment
Transfer to host can occur through direct or indirect contact, or through vectors or vehicles

Fungi

Fungi are eukaryotes that are extremely diverse, with cell walls made of chitin and polysaccharides
Fungi can be saprophytes, necrophytes, or biotrophs, and can reproduce both sexually and asexually
Fungi can be single-celled or multicellular, and can form colonies or mycelium
Yeasts are single-celled fungi that reproduce asexually by budding, while filamentous fungi are multicellular and reproduce by forming spores

Cyanobacteria

Highly resistant to extreme conditions
Contain calcium dipicolinate, which binds free water and helps dehydrate the cell
Some cyanobacteria contain iron and have a special protein that protects their DNA, allowing them to orient themselves in magnetic fields

Bacterial Nutrition and Growth

Nutrients provide elements for the synthesis of cell material
Macronutrients are required in large amounts and include elements like C, O, H, N, P, S, K, Ca, and Mg
Micronutrients are required in small amounts and include elements like Cu, Zn, Ni, V, and Se
Bacteria can grow in culture media, which provides all the necessary elements for growth
Culture media can be chemically defined, complex, or a nutrient agar plate
Bacteria can also grow in liquid media, such as Erlenmeyer flasks or test tubes

Bacterial Growth Phases

Bacterial growth occurs in four phases: lag, log, stationary, and death
The lag phase is a period of slow growth, followed by the log phase, where growth is rapid and exponential
The stationary phase is where growth slows down due to resource depletion, and the death phase is where cell death occurs
Bacterial growth can be measured using direct microscopic count, culturable count, or serial dilution

Metabolic Classification of Bacteria

Bacteria can be classified based on their carbon and energy resources
Heterotrophs use organic compounds as their carbon source, while autotrophs use CO2
Phototrophs use light as their energy source, while chemotrophs use chemical reactions
Environmental factors like oxygen, temperature, pH, and osmolarity can affect bacterial growth and metabolism

Microbiology

Microbiology is the study of organisms that are too small to be seen by the unaided eye
Microorganisms can be beneficial or harmful to humans
Microbiology involves the study of diseases caused by pathogens, and the control of these diseases through vaccination, antibiotics, and personal hygiene

Three Domains of Life

The three domains of life are Eukaryota, Bacteria, and Archaea
Eukaryotes have one or more cells with a nucleus and well-developed intracellular compartments
Bacteria are prokaryotic microorganisms that are typically small and simple in structure
Archaea are prokaryotes that are similar to bacteria in size and simplicity, but have distinct molecular characteristics

Cell Structure and Function

Cell membrane functions include barrier function, respiration/photosynthesis, and energy conservation
Cell wall determines and maintains the shape of the cell, and protects it from osmotic lysis
Gram-positive and Gram-negative cell walls have different structures and functions
Capsule, fimbriae, and pili are important structures involved in bacterial attachment and protection

Bacterial Cytoplasm

Nucleoid is an irregularly shaped region that contains the genetic material
Plasmids are small, closed circular DNA molecules that exist and replicate independently of the chromosome
Cellular inclusions are granules of material that are reserved for future use
Endospores are highly resistant structures that can survive for long periods of time

How Bacteria Cause Diseases

Most bacteria are harmless, and the host immune system prevents them from causing disease
Pathogens are organisms that cause diseases by impairing or interfering with normal physiological activities
Pathogenicity is the ability to cause disease, and virulence is the degree of pathogenicity
Infection and disease are different, with infection being the presence of a pathogen, and disease being the impairment of normal physiological activities

Steps in Infectious Diseases

The steps in infectious diseases include the reservoir, transfer to host, colonization, adherence, and infection
The reservoir is where the bacterial pathogen lives and reproduces, and can be a human, animal, or environment
Transfer to host can occur through direct or indirect contact, or through vectors or vehicles

Fungi

Fungi are eukaryotes that are extremely diverse, with cell walls made of chitin and polysaccharides
Fungi can be saprophytes, necrophytes, or biotrophs, and can reproduce both sexually and asexually
Fungi can be single-celled or multicellular, and can form colonies or mycelium
Yeasts are single-celled fungi that reproduce asexually by budding, while filamentous fungi are multicellular and reproduce by forming spores

Cyanobacteria

Highly resistant to extreme conditions
Contain calcium dipicolinate, which binds free water and helps dehydrate the cell
Some cyanobacteria contain iron and have a special protein that protects their DNA, allowing them to orient themselves in magnetic fields

Bacterial Nutrition and Growth

Nutrients provide elements for the synthesis of cell material
Macronutrients are required in large amounts and include elements like C, O, H, N, P, S, K, Ca, and Mg
Micronutrients are required in small amounts and include elements like Cu, Zn, Ni, V, and Se
Bacteria can grow in culture media, which provides all the necessary elements for growth
Culture media can be chemically defined, complex, or a nutrient agar plate
Bacteria can also grow in liquid media, such as Erlenmeyer flasks or test tubes

Bacterial Growth Phases

Bacterial growth occurs in four phases: lag, log, stationary, and death
The lag phase is a period of slow growth, followed by the log phase, where growth is rapid and exponential
The stationary phase is where growth slows down due to resource depletion, and the death phase is where cell death occurs
Bacterial growth can be measured using direct microscopic count, culturable count, or serial dilution

Metabolic Classification of Bacteria

Bacteria can be classified based on their carbon and energy resources
Heterotrophs use organic compounds as their carbon source, while autotrophs use CO2
Phototrophs use light as their energy source, while chemotrophs use chemical reactions
Environmental factors like oxygen, temperature, pH, and osmolarity can affect bacterial growth and metabolism

Microbiology

Microbiology is the study of organisms that are too small to be seen by the unaided eye
Microorganisms can be beneficial or harmful to humans
Microbiology involves the study of diseases caused by pathogens, and the control of these diseases through vaccination, antibiotics, and personal hygiene

Three Domains of Life

The three domains of life are Eukaryota, Bacteria, and Archaea
Eukaryotes have one or more cells with a nucleus and well-developed intracellular compartments
Bacteria are prokaryotic microorganisms that are typically small and simple in structure
Archaea are prokaryotes that are similar to bacteria in size and simplicity, but have distinct molecular characteristics

Cell Structure and Function

Cell membrane functions include barrier function, respiration/photosynthesis, and energy conservation
Cell wall determines and maintains the shape of the cell, and protects it from osmotic lysis
Gram-positive and Gram-negative cell walls have different structures and functions
Capsule, fimbriae, and pili are important structures involved in bacterial attachment and protection

Bacterial Cytoplasm

Nucleoid is an irregularly shaped region that contains the genetic material
Plasmids are small, closed circular DNA molecules that exist and replicate independently of the chromosome
Cellular inclusions are granules of material that are reserved for future use
Endospores are highly resistant structures that can survive for long periods of time

How Bacteria Cause Diseases

Most bacteria are harmless, and the host immune system prevents them from causing disease
Pathogens are organisms that cause diseases by impairing or interfering with normal physiological activities
Pathogenicity is the ability to cause disease, and virulence is the degree of pathogenicity
Infection and disease are different, with infection being the presence of a pathogen, and disease being the impairment of normal physiological activities

Steps in Infectious Diseases

The steps in infectious diseases include the reservoir, transfer to host, colonization, adherence, and infection
The reservoir is where the bacterial pathogen lives and reproduces, and can be a human, animal, or environment
Transfer to host can occur through direct or indirect contact, or through vectors or vehicles

Fungi

Fungi are eukaryotes that are extremely diverse, with cell walls made of chitin and polysaccharides
Fungi can be saprophytes, necrophytes, or biotrophs, and can reproduce both sexually and asexually
Fungi can be single-celled or multicellular, and can form colonies or mycelium
Yeasts are single-celled fungi that reproduce asexually by budding, while filamentous fungi are multicellular and reproduce by forming spores

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Description

This quiz covers the different stages of the life cycle of bacteriophages, including adsorption, penetration, replication, maturation, and release. It also explores the differences between lytic and lysogenic bacteriophages.