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What is the characteristic of the viral genome in the Baltimore system of virus classification?

  • It is already in the form of mRNA
  • It can be directly translated into protein
  • It must be converted into mRNA which can be read by ribosomes (correct)
  • It can be directly transcribed into mRNA

    • What is the primary mechanism by which viruses attach to host cells during the entry stage?

  • Binding to receptors on the host cell surface (correct)
  • Fusion of envelope with host membrane
  • Injection of nucleic acid
  • Endocytosis

    • What is the term for the process by which viruses release their genetic material into the host cell?

  • Endocytosis
  • Fusion of envelope with host membrane
  • Transcription
  • Injection of nucleic acid (correct)

    • During which stage of the virus life cycle is the synthesis of mRNA occurs?

    <p>Replication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of the latent infection pathway?

    <p>Lytic infection</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of the viral genome in the +dsDNA category of the Baltimore system?

    <p>It is a double-stranded DNA</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of viral glycoprotein during the exit stage?

    <p>To insert viral glycoprotein on the surface of the host membrane</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process by which viruses release their genetic material from the host cell?

    <p>Lysis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism by which lysogenic phages integrate into the host's chromosome?

    <p>By producing repressor protein that blocks lytic genes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of using bacteriophage enzyme in biomedicine?

    <p>To control the amount of bacteria in the environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the virion capsid structure in viruses?

    <p>To protect the viral genome from the host's immune system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During the replication cycle of bacteriophages, what is the primary function of the maturation stage?

    <p>To release new virions from the host cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using bacteriophages in biomedicine?

    <p>To control the amount of bacteria in the environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between lytic and lysogenic phages?

    <p>Lytic phages kill the host cell, while lysogenic phages integrate into the host's chromosome</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)?

    <p>To classify viruses based on their molecular composition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the adsorption stage in the bacteriophage life cycle?

    <p>To bind to the host cell's receptors</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the capsid in a virus?

    <p>To protect the nucleic acid from being digested</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of virus can infect other viruses?

    <p>Virophage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a type of host for viruses?

    <p>Virus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of penicillin in biomedicine?

    <p>To act as an antibiotic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the extracellular virus particle?

    <p>Virion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process by which a virus infects a host cell and replicates?

    <p>Replication</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the shape of the capsid of some viruses?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of statin in biomedicine?

    <p>To inhibit the biosynthesis of cholesterol</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the viable cell that doesn't grow in conventional media?

    <p>Viable but non-culturable bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the method of counting cells that involves forming colonies on a solid medium?

    <p>Culturable count</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the environmental factor that affects bacterial growth, and has an optimal range for different bacteria?

    <p>Temperature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do bacteria divide during the exponential growth phase?

    <p>Binary fission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the type of bacteria that uses light energy for metabolism?

    <p>Phototrophs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the method of counting cells that involves using a fluorescent dye?

    <p>Viable count</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the type of bacteria that lives in habitats with high salt concentrations?

    <p>Halophiles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the method of measuring bacterial growth that involves serial dilutions and plating?

    <p>Serial dilution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a characteristic feature of Archaea?

    <p>They have a proteinaceous coat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the cell membrane in microbes?

    <p>To facilitate nutrient exchange and respiration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of flagella in microbes?

    <p>To facilitate locomotion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the cell wall in microbes?

    <p>To provide structural support and maintain shape</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of plasmids in microbes?

    <p>To carry genes that provide selective advantage</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of endospores in microbes?

    <p>To survive for long periods under unfavourable conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of the gram-positive cell wall?

    <p>It has a thicker peptidoglycan layer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of fimbriae and pili in microbes?

    <p>To facilitate recognition and attachment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of calcium dipicolinate in Cyanobacteria?

    <p>Binds free water and helps dehydrate cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of culture media has an exact chemical composition?

    <p>Chemically defined media</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of micronutrients in bacterial nutrition?

    <p>Small amounts required</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the lag phase in bacterial growth?

    <p>Cell adaptation to new environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of using nutrient agar plates in bacterial growth?

    <p>Purification of bacterial cultures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of bacterial growth in batch culture?

    <p>Closed system with limited nutrient supply</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Cyanobacteria?

    <p>Requires large amounts of micronutrients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the stationary phase in bacterial growth?

    <p>Cell growth slows down and reaches equilibrium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a viable but non-culturable bacterium?

    <p>It is unable to grow in any medium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using direct microscopic count to measure bacterial growth?

    <p>It is a fast and easy method</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a heterotrophic bacterium?

    <p>It is unable to produce its own food and relies on external sources</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of serial dilution in measuring bacterial growth?

    <p>To obtain a culturable count of bacteria</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary environmental factor that affects bacterial growth and has an optimal range for different bacteria?

    <p>All of the above</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a phototrophic bacterium?

    <p>It is able to produce its own food using light energy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary method of counting cells that involves using a fluorescent dye?

    <p>Viable count</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a halophilic bacterium?

    <p>It is able to grow in habitats with high salt concentrations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the impact of high salt concentration on water activity?

    <p>Decreases water activity through osmosis</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between opportunistic and primary pathogens?

    <p>Primary pathogens cause diseases in healthy individuals, while opportunistic pathogens cause diseases in individuals with impaired immune systems</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process by which bacterial pathogens establish a stable population in the host?

    <p>Colonization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability of a pathogen to cause disease?

    <p>Pathogenicity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the degree or intensity of pathogenicity?

    <p>Virulence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the environment where bacterial pathogens live and reproduce in large amounts?

    <p>Reservoir</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the process by which bacteria attach to the host surface?

    <p>Adherence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the type of bacteria that lives in habitats with high salt concentrations?

    <p>Halophile</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of a higher SA/Vol ratio in microbial cells?

    <p>Increased rate of nutrient exchange and growth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of the proton motive force in microbial cells?

    <p>Energy conservation during respiration</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of Gram-positive cell walls?

    <p>Presence of a thick peptidoglycan layer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of plasmids in microbial cells?

    <p>Carrying genes for antibiotic resistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of endospores in microbial cells?

    <p>Survival during unfavourable conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of fimbriae and pili in microbial cells?

    <p>Recognition and attachment to surfaces</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of the exponential growth phase in microbial cells?

    <p>Increasing growth rate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary method of counting microbial cells that involves forming colonies on a solid medium?

    <p>Plate counting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of the cell wall of fungi?

    <p>Made of chitin and polysaccharides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of enzyme secretion in fungi?

    <p>To digest and absorb organic material</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of yeasts?

    <p>Single-celled, spherical and asexually reproduced</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of hyphae in fungi?

    <p>To absorb nutrients from the environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of dimorphic fungi?

    <p>They can transition between yeast and mold forms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of sporangia in zygomycetes?

    <p>To produce asexual spores</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of fungi nutrition?

    <p>They are heterotrophic and absorb nutrients from their surroundings</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the mode of reproduction in yeast?

    <p>Asexual reproduction by budding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of calcium dipicolinate in Cyanobacteria?

    <p>Bind free water and help dehydrate cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of culture media has an exact chemical composition?

    <p>Chemically defined media</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of micronutrients in bacterial nutrition?

    <p>Required in small quantities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the lag phase in bacterial growth?

    <p>Cell adaptation to new environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of using nutrient agar plates?

    <p>To purify bacterial cultures</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of bacterial growth in batch culture?

    <p>Closed system with limited nutrients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the assumption made in the culturable count method of measuring bacterial growth?

    <p>Culturable cells will grow and divide to yield one colony</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the type of bacteria that uses light energy for metabolism?

    <p>Phototrophs</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the stationary phase in bacterial growth?

    <p>Nutrient depletion and cell maintenance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between total count and viable count in cell counting?

    <p>Total count includes dead cells, viable count only includes live cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a viable but non-culturable bacterium?

    <p>Does not grow on any medium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of serial dilution in measuring bacterial growth?

    <p>To dilute the culture to a suitable concentration for plating</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a viable but non-culturable bacterium?

    <p>It is viable but does not grow in conventional media</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using direct microscopic count to measure bacterial growth?

    <p>It is faster and easier than other methods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the type of bacteria that lives in habitats with high salt concentrations?

    <p>Halophiles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of bacterial growth in the exponential phase?

    <p>Growth rate increases exponentially</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of endospores in microbes?

    <p>To survive for long periods under unfavourable conditions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the lag phase in bacterial growth?

    <p>Cell adaptation to new environment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of bacterial fission?

    <p>To divide and produce new cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of culture media has an exact chemical composition?

    <p>Defined media</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of micronutrients in bacterial nutrition?

    <p>Required in small quantities</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the cell membrane in microbes?

    <p>To regulate nutrient uptake</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a viable but non-culturable bacterium?

    <p>Cannot grow on any medium</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the cell wall in microbes?

    <p>To provide structural support</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of the lag phase in bacterial growth?

    <p>Adaptation to environment and enzyme production</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of culture media has an exact chemical composition?

    <p>Defined media</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of bacterial growth in batch culture?

    <p>Exponential growth followed by decline</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of calcium dipicolinate in Cyanobacteria?

    <p>Sporulation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of fimbriae and pili in microbes?

    <p>Adherence to host cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using direct microscopic count to measure bacterial growth?

    <p>Accurate cell count and viability assessment</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of a viable but non-culturable bacterium?

    <p>Metabolic activity without cell division</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the stationary phase in bacterial growth?

    <p>Cell maintenance and survival</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of the formation of spores in fungi?

    <p>To disperse and colonize new areas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During which growth phase do fungi undergo rapid cell division and produce aerial extensions?

    <p>Log phase</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of cell division in yeasts?

    <p>Budding</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of culture media is used to grow fungi that require specific nutrients?

    <p>Defined media</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of chitin in fungal cell walls?

    <p>To provide structural support</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of fungi has a heterotrophic mode of nutrition?

    <p>Saprophytes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of hyphae in filamentous fungi?

    <p>To absorb nutrients</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of fungi has a diploid state during zygospore formation?

    <p>Zygomycetes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cyanobacteria are sensitive to extreme conditions.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nutrient agar plates are used for the purification of bacterial cultures.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bacteria in the stationary phase are in a state of rapid growth.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Macronutrients are required in small quantities for bacterial growth.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Chemically defined media has an exact chemical composition.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The lag phase is the period of rapid bacterial growth.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Micronutrients are required in large quantities for bacterial growth.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Batch culture is an open system, where nutrients can be added or removed.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Binary fission of bacteria results in four daughter cells.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The viable count of bacteria measures the total number of bacteria in a sample.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Culturable count of bacteria is the same as viable count.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Turbidity measurement is used to measure the growth of bacteria in liquid media.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Heterotrophs are bacteria that obtain energy from light.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Serial dilution is a method used to measure bacterial growth.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Halophiles are bacteria that grow in high-temperature habitats.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Viable but non-culturable bacteria are bacteria that are dead.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The lag phase is the stage of bacterial growth where the bacteria divide rapidly.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The stationary phase is characterized by a decrease in bacterial growth rate due to nutrient depletion.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Endospores are formed during the exponential growth phase.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Plasmids are required for bacterial growth and reproduction.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nutrient agar plates are used to measure bacterial growth in batch culture.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The primary function of the cell wall is to provide structural support and maintain the shape of the cell.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Calcium dipicolinate is involved in the formation of endospores in bacteria.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The SA/Vol ratio affects the growth rate of bacteria.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In extreme salt concentrations, water activity increases through osmosis.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Pathogenicity refers to the degree of toxicity and invasiveness of a pathogen.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Colonization of a host by a pathogen always leads to disease.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Opportunistic pathogens can cause disease in individuals with a healthy immune system.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bacterial growth in a batch culture follows a linear pattern.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Endospores are formed by all types of bacteria.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nutrient agar plates are an example of a selective culture media.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Calcium dipicolinate is a characteristic component of bacterial spores.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fungi have a peptidoglycan cell wall.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Yeasts are always multicellular.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Filamentous fungi have a polarized tip growth.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a type of filamentous fungus.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Heterotrophs obtain their nutrients by photosynthesis.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Zygomycetes have septate hyphae.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fungi reproduce solely through asexual means.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Glomus spp. are a type of bacterium.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bacterial growth is measured by viable count.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Halophiles grow in habitats with low salt concentrations.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Autotrophs obtain energy from light.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Binary fission is a characteristic of the lag phase.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Turbidity is a measure of bacterial growth by light absorbance.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Serial dilution is a method of direct microscopic count.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Culturable count measures the number of colonies formed on agar plates.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Viable but non-culturable bacteria do not grow in conventional media.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Cyanobacteria contain calcium dipicolinate, which helps to dehydrate the cell by releasing free water.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In batch culture, bacterial growth occurs in an open system with continuous nutrient addition.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The log phase of bacterial growth is characterized by a slow growth rate.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Microelements are required in large amounts by bacterial cells.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Complex media has an exact chemical composition.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bacterial cells can grow in the absence of nutrient agar plates.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The stationary phase of bacterial growth is characterized by a rapid growth rate.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All bacteria require the same amount of micronutrients for growth.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Endospores are a type of inclusion found in bacterial cells.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    During the exponential growth phase, bacterial cells divide by binary fission.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Most alkaliphiles are halotolerant.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bacteria can use light energy for metabolism through the process of chemosynthesis.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nutrient agar plates are a type of selective media.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Pathogens can cause diseases in the presence of a healthy immune system.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Reservoirs are where bacterial pathogens are eliminated.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The lag phase of bacterial growth is the period of rapid cell division.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Adherence is the establishment of a stable population of bacteria in the host.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fimbriae are involved in the attachment of bacteria to surfaces.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Spore formation is a type of binary fission in bacteria.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Opportunistic pathogens can cause diseases in the absence of immune impairment.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    High salt concentration leads to higher water activity.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Micronutrients are essential for bacterial growth in very large quantities.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Transfer to the host occurs through indirect host-host transmission only.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Infection always leads to disease.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fungi can produce haploid spores through a process of meiosis.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Filamentous fungi are typically multicellular.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Yeasts are always single-celled organisms.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fungi can absorb nutrients from their environment through a process of heterotrophy.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Zygomycetes are the largest phylum of fungi.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fungi can reproduce sexually through a process of heterothallism.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Fungi have a cell wall composed of chitin and polysaccharides.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Saccharomyces cerevisiae is a type of filamentous fungus.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Viral Replication Cycle

    • Adsorption: Virus attaches to receptors
    • Penetration: Inject nucleic acid into host cell
    • Replication: Synthesis of viral material and combine
    • Maturation: Release of new virions
    • Release: Lytic and lysogenic/temperature phage

    Lytic and Lysogenic/Temperature Phage

    • Lytic phage: Kill host cell
    • Lysogenic/Temperature phage:
      • Prophage: Integrate into host’s chromosome
      • Replicates with host cell
      • Stresses → reactivate the lytic cycle

    Phages in Biomedicine

    • EBI: Used on unprocessed foods
    • Bacteriophage enzyme
    • Display of immunodominant region of HBV on bacteriophage H7

    Quantifying Bacteriophage

    • Agar plate with E. coli

    Viruses Benefits and Disadvantages

    • Advantages:
      • Planetary force
      • Control the amount of bacteria
    • Disadvantages:
      • Impact on health
      • Impact of microbes

    Taxonomy for Viruses

    • International Committee on Taxonomy of Viruses (ICTV)
    • Molecular composition of genome
    • Sequence similarity
    • Virion/capsid structure
    • Presence of an envelope
    • Host range
    • Pathogenicity

    Baltimore System of Virus Classification

    • Viral genome must make mRNA which can be read by ribosomes
    • mRNA: +ssRNA (ribosome ready)
    • +dsDNA
    • Complementary: - (minus)

    Infection Pathway

    • Transformation into tumour cell
    • Lysis
    • Persistent infection (Slow release of virus, X cell death)
    • Latent infection (→ Lytic infection)

    Virus Life Cycle

    • Entry: Viruses attach to receptors
    • Replication: Viral protein synthesis of mRNA, viral genome generation
    • Exit:
      • Virus inserts viral glycoprotein on the surface of the membrane
      • Capsid migrates to the cell membrane

    Fungi as Drugs

    • Penicillin (antibiotics)
    • Statin: Inhibit biosynthesis of cholesterol, reduce plasma cholesterol level

    General Properties, Structures, and Hosts of Viruses

    • Viruses: Simple, minuscule, infectious, obligate intracellular parasite comprising genetic material surrounded by a protein coat deprived from a host cell membrane
    • Genetic material of virus: DNA & RNA
    • Virus existence in 2 states:
      • Intracellular virus (After infecting the host cell) [Replication]
      • Extracellular Virion (Outside host cell) [Transmission]

    Shapes of Capsid

    • Helical
    • Polyhedral
    • Binal
    • Function of capsid:
      • Protects nucleic acid from being digested
      • Attaches to the host cell
      • Penetrates host cell membrane

    Cyanobacteria

    • Highly resistant to extreme conditions
    • Contain calcium dipicolinate, which binds free water and helps dehydrate the cell
    • Some cyanobacteria contain iron and have a special protein that protects their DNA, allowing them to orient themselves in magnetic fields

    Bacterial Nutrition and Growth

    • Nutrients provide elements for the synthesis of cell material
    • Macronutrients are required in large amounts and include elements like C, O, H, N, P, S, K, Ca, and Mg
    • Micronutrients are required in small amounts and include elements like Cu, Zn, Ni, V, and Se
    • Bacteria can grow in culture media, which provides all the necessary elements for growth
    • Culture media can be chemically defined, complex, or a nutrient agar plate
    • Bacteria can also grow in liquid media, such as Erlenmeyer flasks or test tubes

    Bacterial Growth Phases

    • Bacterial growth occurs in four phases: lag, log, stationary, and death
    • The lag phase is a period of slow growth, followed by the log phase, where growth is rapid and exponential
    • The stationary phase is where growth slows down due to resource depletion, and the death phase is where cell death occurs
    • Bacterial growth can be measured using direct microscopic count, culturable count, or serial dilution

    Metabolic Classification of Bacteria

    • Bacteria can be classified based on their carbon and energy resources
    • Heterotrophs use organic compounds as their carbon source, while autotrophs use CO2
    • Phototrophs use light as their energy source, while chemotrophs use chemical reactions
    • Environmental factors like oxygen, temperature, pH, and osmolarity can affect bacterial growth and metabolism

    Microbiology

    • Microbiology is the study of organisms that are too small to be seen by the unaided eye
    • Microorganisms can be beneficial or harmful to humans
    • Microbiology involves the study of diseases caused by pathogens, and the control of these diseases through vaccination, antibiotics, and personal hygiene

    Three Domains of Life

    • The three domains of life are Eukaryota, Bacteria, and Archaea
    • Eukaryotes have one or more cells with a nucleus and well-developed intracellular compartments
    • Bacteria are prokaryotic microorganisms that are typically small and simple in structure
    • Archaea are prokaryotes that are similar to bacteria in size and simplicity, but have distinct molecular characteristics

    Cell Structure and Function

    • Cell membrane functions include barrier function, respiration/photosynthesis, and energy conservation
    • Cell wall determines and maintains the shape of the cell, and protects it from osmotic lysis
    • Gram-positive and Gram-negative cell walls have different structures and functions
    • Capsule, fimbriae, and pili are important structures involved in bacterial attachment and protection

    Bacterial Cytoplasm

    • Nucleoid is an irregularly shaped region that contains the genetic material
    • Plasmids are small, closed circular DNA molecules that exist and replicate independently of the chromosome
    • Cellular inclusions are granules of material that are reserved for future use
    • Endospores are highly resistant structures that can survive for long periods of time

    How Bacteria Cause Diseases

    • Most bacteria are harmless, and the host immune system prevents them from causing disease
    • Pathogens are organisms that cause diseases by impairing or interfering with normal physiological activities
    • Pathogenicity is the ability to cause disease, and virulence is the degree of pathogenicity
    • Infection and disease are different, with infection being the presence of a pathogen, and disease being the impairment of normal physiological activities

    Steps in Infectious Diseases

    • The steps in infectious diseases include the reservoir, transfer to host, colonization, adherence, and infection
    • The reservoir is where the bacterial pathogen lives and reproduces, and can be a human, animal, or environment
    • Transfer to host can occur through direct or indirect contact, or through vectors or vehicles

    Fungi

    • Fungi are eukaryotes that are extremely diverse, with cell walls made of chitin and polysaccharides
    • Fungi can be saprophytes, necrophytes, or biotrophs, and can reproduce both sexually and asexually
    • Fungi can be single-celled or multicellular, and can form colonies or mycelium
    • Yeasts are single-celled fungi that reproduce asexually by budding, while filamentous fungi are multicellular and reproduce by forming spores

    Cyanobacteria

    • Highly resistant to extreme conditions
    • Contain calcium dipicolinate, which binds free water and helps dehydrate the cell
    • Some cyanobacteria contain iron and have a special protein that protects their DNA, allowing them to orient themselves in magnetic fields

    Bacterial Nutrition and Growth

    • Nutrients provide elements for the synthesis of cell material
    • Macronutrients are required in large amounts and include elements like C, O, H, N, P, S, K, Ca, and Mg
    • Micronutrients are required in small amounts and include elements like Cu, Zn, Ni, V, and Se
    • Bacteria can grow in culture media, which provides all the necessary elements for growth
    • Culture media can be chemically defined, complex, or a nutrient agar plate
    • Bacteria can also grow in liquid media, such as Erlenmeyer flasks or test tubes

    Bacterial Growth Phases

    • Bacterial growth occurs in four phases: lag, log, stationary, and death
    • The lag phase is a period of slow growth, followed by the log phase, where growth is rapid and exponential
    • The stationary phase is where growth slows down due to resource depletion, and the death phase is where cell death occurs
    • Bacterial growth can be measured using direct microscopic count, culturable count, or serial dilution

    Metabolic Classification of Bacteria

    • Bacteria can be classified based on their carbon and energy resources
    • Heterotrophs use organic compounds as their carbon source, while autotrophs use CO2
    • Phototrophs use light as their energy source, while chemotrophs use chemical reactions
    • Environmental factors like oxygen, temperature, pH, and osmolarity can affect bacterial growth and metabolism

    Microbiology

    • Microbiology is the study of organisms that are too small to be seen by the unaided eye
    • Microorganisms can be beneficial or harmful to humans
    • Microbiology involves the study of diseases caused by pathogens, and the control of these diseases through vaccination, antibiotics, and personal hygiene

    Three Domains of Life

    • The three domains of life are Eukaryota, Bacteria, and Archaea
    • Eukaryotes have one or more cells with a nucleus and well-developed intracellular compartments
    • Bacteria are prokaryotic microorganisms that are typically small and simple in structure
    • Archaea are prokaryotes that are similar to bacteria in size and simplicity, but have distinct molecular characteristics

    Cell Structure and Function

    • Cell membrane functions include barrier function, respiration/photosynthesis, and energy conservation
    • Cell wall determines and maintains the shape of the cell, and protects it from osmotic lysis
    • Gram-positive and Gram-negative cell walls have different structures and functions
    • Capsule, fimbriae, and pili are important structures involved in bacterial attachment and protection

    Bacterial Cytoplasm

    • Nucleoid is an irregularly shaped region that contains the genetic material
    • Plasmids are small, closed circular DNA molecules that exist and replicate independently of the chromosome
    • Cellular inclusions are granules of material that are reserved for future use
    • Endospores are highly resistant structures that can survive for long periods of time

    How Bacteria Cause Diseases

    • Most bacteria are harmless, and the host immune system prevents them from causing disease
    • Pathogens are organisms that cause diseases by impairing or interfering with normal physiological activities
    • Pathogenicity is the ability to cause disease, and virulence is the degree of pathogenicity
    • Infection and disease are different, with infection being the presence of a pathogen, and disease being the impairment of normal physiological activities

    Steps in Infectious Diseases

    • The steps in infectious diseases include the reservoir, transfer to host, colonization, adherence, and infection
    • The reservoir is where the bacterial pathogen lives and reproduces, and can be a human, animal, or environment
    • Transfer to host can occur through direct or indirect contact, or through vectors or vehicles

    Fungi

    • Fungi are eukaryotes that are extremely diverse, with cell walls made of chitin and polysaccharides
    • Fungi can be saprophytes, necrophytes, or biotrophs, and can reproduce both sexually and asexually
    • Fungi can be single-celled or multicellular, and can form colonies or mycelium
    • Yeasts are single-celled fungi that reproduce asexually by budding, while filamentous fungi are multicellular and reproduce by forming spores

    Cyanobacteria

    • Highly resistant to extreme conditions
    • Contain calcium dipicolinate, which binds free water and helps dehydrate the cell
    • Some cyanobacteria contain iron and have a special protein that protects their DNA, allowing them to orient themselves in magnetic fields

    Bacterial Nutrition and Growth

    • Nutrients provide elements for the synthesis of cell material
    • Macronutrients are required in large amounts and include elements like C, O, H, N, P, S, K, Ca, and Mg
    • Micronutrients are required in small amounts and include elements like Cu, Zn, Ni, V, and Se
    • Bacteria can grow in culture media, which provides all the necessary elements for growth
    • Culture media can be chemically defined, complex, or a nutrient agar plate
    • Bacteria can also grow in liquid media, such as Erlenmeyer flasks or test tubes

    Bacterial Growth Phases

    • Bacterial growth occurs in four phases: lag, log, stationary, and death
    • The lag phase is a period of slow growth, followed by the log phase, where growth is rapid and exponential
    • The stationary phase is where growth slows down due to resource depletion, and the death phase is where cell death occurs
    • Bacterial growth can be measured using direct microscopic count, culturable count, or serial dilution

    Metabolic Classification of Bacteria

    • Bacteria can be classified based on their carbon and energy resources
    • Heterotrophs use organic compounds as their carbon source, while autotrophs use CO2
    • Phototrophs use light as their energy source, while chemotrophs use chemical reactions
    • Environmental factors like oxygen, temperature, pH, and osmolarity can affect bacterial growth and metabolism

    Microbiology

    • Microbiology is the study of organisms that are too small to be seen by the unaided eye
    • Microorganisms can be beneficial or harmful to humans
    • Microbiology involves the study of diseases caused by pathogens, and the control of these diseases through vaccination, antibiotics, and personal hygiene

    Three Domains of Life

    • The three domains of life are Eukaryota, Bacteria, and Archaea
    • Eukaryotes have one or more cells with a nucleus and well-developed intracellular compartments
    • Bacteria are prokaryotic microorganisms that are typically small and simple in structure
    • Archaea are prokaryotes that are similar to bacteria in size and simplicity, but have distinct molecular characteristics

    Cell Structure and Function

    • Cell membrane functions include barrier function, respiration/photosynthesis, and energy conservation
    • Cell wall determines and maintains the shape of the cell, and protects it from osmotic lysis
    • Gram-positive and Gram-negative cell walls have different structures and functions
    • Capsule, fimbriae, and pili are important structures involved in bacterial attachment and protection

    Bacterial Cytoplasm

    • Nucleoid is an irregularly shaped region that contains the genetic material
    • Plasmids are small, closed circular DNA molecules that exist and replicate independently of the chromosome
    • Cellular inclusions are granules of material that are reserved for future use
    • Endospores are highly resistant structures that can survive for long periods of time

    How Bacteria Cause Diseases

    • Most bacteria are harmless, and the host immune system prevents them from causing disease
    • Pathogens are organisms that cause diseases by impairing or interfering with normal physiological activities
    • Pathogenicity is the ability to cause disease, and virulence is the degree of pathogenicity
    • Infection and disease are different, with infection being the presence of a pathogen, and disease being the impairment of normal physiological activities

    Steps in Infectious Diseases

    • The steps in infectious diseases include the reservoir, transfer to host, colonization, adherence, and infection
    • The reservoir is where the bacterial pathogen lives and reproduces, and can be a human, animal, or environment
    • Transfer to host can occur through direct or indirect contact, or through vectors or vehicles

    Fungi

    • Fungi are eukaryotes that are extremely diverse, with cell walls made of chitin and polysaccharides
    • Fungi can be saprophytes, necrophytes, or biotrophs, and can reproduce both sexually and asexually
    • Fungi can be single-celled or multicellular, and can form colonies or mycelium
    • Yeasts are single-celled fungi that reproduce asexually by budding, while filamentous fungi are multicellular and reproduce by forming spores

    Cyanobacteria

    • Highly resistant to extreme conditions
    • Contain calcium dipicolinate, which binds free water and helps dehydrate the cell
    • Some cyanobacteria contain iron and have a special protein that protects their DNA, allowing them to orient themselves in magnetic fields

    Bacterial Nutrition and Growth

    • Nutrients provide elements for the synthesis of cell material
    • Macronutrients are required in large amounts and include elements like C, O, H, N, P, S, K, Ca, and Mg
    • Micronutrients are required in small amounts and include elements like Cu, Zn, Ni, V, and Se
    • Bacteria can grow in culture media, which provides all the necessary elements for growth
    • Culture media can be chemically defined, complex, or a nutrient agar plate
    • Bacteria can also grow in liquid media, such as Erlenmeyer flasks or test tubes

    Bacterial Growth Phases

    • Bacterial growth occurs in four phases: lag, log, stationary, and death
    • The lag phase is a period of slow growth, followed by the log phase, where growth is rapid and exponential
    • The stationary phase is where growth slows down due to resource depletion, and the death phase is where cell death occurs
    • Bacterial growth can be measured using direct microscopic count, culturable count, or serial dilution

    Metabolic Classification of Bacteria

    • Bacteria can be classified based on their carbon and energy resources
    • Heterotrophs use organic compounds as their carbon source, while autotrophs use CO2
    • Phototrophs use light as their energy source, while chemotrophs use chemical reactions
    • Environmental factors like oxygen, temperature, pH, and osmolarity can affect bacterial growth and metabolism

    Microbiology

    • Microbiology is the study of organisms that are too small to be seen by the unaided eye
    • Microorganisms can be beneficial or harmful to humans
    • Microbiology involves the study of diseases caused by pathogens, and the control of these diseases through vaccination, antibiotics, and personal hygiene

    Three Domains of Life

    • The three domains of life are Eukaryota, Bacteria, and Archaea
    • Eukaryotes have one or more cells with a nucleus and well-developed intracellular compartments
    • Bacteria are prokaryotic microorganisms that are typically small and simple in structure
    • Archaea are prokaryotes that are similar to bacteria in size and simplicity, but have distinct molecular characteristics

    Cell Structure and Function

    • Cell membrane functions include barrier function, respiration/photosynthesis, and energy conservation
    • Cell wall determines and maintains the shape of the cell, and protects it from osmotic lysis
    • Gram-positive and Gram-negative cell walls have different structures and functions
    • Capsule, fimbriae, and pili are important structures involved in bacterial attachment and protection

    Bacterial Cytoplasm

    • Nucleoid is an irregularly shaped region that contains the genetic material
    • Plasmids are small, closed circular DNA molecules that exist and replicate independently of the chromosome
    • Cellular inclusions are granules of material that are reserved for future use
    • Endospores are highly resistant structures that can survive for long periods of time

    How Bacteria Cause Diseases

    • Most bacteria are harmless, and the host immune system prevents them from causing disease
    • Pathogens are organisms that cause diseases by impairing or interfering with normal physiological activities
    • Pathogenicity is the ability to cause disease, and virulence is the degree of pathogenicity
    • Infection and disease are different, with infection being the presence of a pathogen, and disease being the impairment of normal physiological activities

    Steps in Infectious Diseases

    • The steps in infectious diseases include the reservoir, transfer to host, colonization, adherence, and infection
    • The reservoir is where the bacterial pathogen lives and reproduces, and can be a human, animal, or environment
    • Transfer to host can occur through direct or indirect contact, or through vectors or vehicles

    Fungi

    • Fungi are eukaryotes that are extremely diverse, with cell walls made of chitin and polysaccharides
    • Fungi can be saprophytes, necrophytes, or biotrophs, and can reproduce both sexually and asexually
    • Fungi can be single-celled or multicellular, and can form colonies or mycelium
    • Yeasts are single-celled fungi that reproduce asexually by budding, while filamentous fungi are multicellular and reproduce by forming spores

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    Biol 121 Lecture Notes - Impact of Microbes PDF

    Description

    This quiz covers the different stages of the life cycle of bacteriophages, including adsorption, penetration, replication, maturation, and release. It also explores the differences between lytic and lysogenic bacteriophages.

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