Learning and Memory

• Learning involves obtaining new information
• Memory is how learned information is preserved

Long-term Potentiation (LTP)

• Excitatory postsynaptic potential (EPSP) is an important component
• Specificity means active synapses are strengthened
• Associativity means coactive synapses are strengthened

Changes in Postsynaptic Nucleus

• Target genes are impacted
• Target genes affect dendritic plasticity
• Target genes affect mitochondrial proteins
• Target genes aid in neuroprotection
• Target genes affect stabilisation of plasticity
• Glutamate is an important component

Long-term Depression (LTD)

• Long-term depression occurs between climbing fibers and Purkinje cells in motor learning
• During learned commands, the learning circuit for corrections is lost

Processing Information

• Different cortical regions participate in processing information

Learning and Memory

• Sensory input proceeds to sensory memory
• From sensory memory, information goes to short-term memory with attention
• Rehearsal influences short-term memory
• Short-term memory proceeds to intermediate-term memory
• Intermediate-term memory proceeds to long-term memory
• Long-term memory has connections to episodic and semantic components, as well as auditory and visual aspects
• Working memory influences short-term memory
• The short-term memory, intermediate-term memory, and long-term memory can all be forgotten
• Modified Atkinson and Shiffrin, 1968 concept

Sensory Memory

• Sensory memory includes iconic memory
• Sensory memory includes echoic memory
• Sensory memory includes other memories, such as touch
• Sensory memory all proceed to become short-term memory

Short-Term Memory

• Short-term memory involves impulse circulation through reverberating circuits
• An active synapse means memorising

Neuroplasticity

• Neuroplasticity consists of Habituation
• Neuroplasticity consists of Sensitization

Working Memory

• In short-term memory, gamma oscillations (32Hz) at 32Hz frequency and delta oscillations (2-4Hz) are observed in prefrontal cortex activity
• Local field potential (LFP) is formed
• Separate action potentials encode object information using beta oscillations for time resolution
• Delta oscillation limits short-term memory capacity

Intermediate Term Memory and Working Memory

• Phonological loop
• Visuo-spatial sketchpad
• Episodic and semantic buffer
• Presynaptic facilitation occurs between neuronal circuits in one synapse in sea snails
• The concept involves Baddeley, 2000

Phonological Loop

• The phonological loop involves the frontal cortex (central executive)
• The phonological loop involves the Wernicke's area
• The phonological loop involves the Broca's area
• The phonological loop involves the angular cortex
• The phonological loop involves the visual and audial cortex
• The phonological loop is used to save heard and read information

Visuo-Spatial Sketchpad

• The visuo-spatial sketchpad involves the frontal cortex (central executive)
• The visuo-spatial sketchpad involves the parietal cortex (“Where” system)
• The visuo-spatial sketchpad involves the temporal cortex (“What” system)
• The visuo-spatial sketchpad involves the visual cortex
• The visuo-spatial sketchpad functions to save visual and spatial information

Episodic Buffer

• The episodic buffer links the frontal cortex (central executive) to the hippocampus

Long-Term Memory

• Declarative memory (can say) involves episodic and semantic memory
• Non-declarative memory (can do) involves skills, priming and conditional reflexes

Declarative Memory Circuits

• Declarative memory circuits involve the thalamus
• Declarative memory circuits involve the basal forebrain
• Declarative memory circuits involve the prefrontal cortex
• Declarative memory circuits involve the sensory input
• Declarative memory circuits involve the association cortex
• Declarative memory circuits involve the medial temporal lobe (hippocampus, etc.)
• Declarative memory circuits involve the hippocampus

Procedural Memory Circuits

• The thalamus
• The basal nuclei
• The midbrain (substantia nigra)
• The premotor cortex
• Sensory and motor inputs
• Associative cortex
• The midbrain (dopamine)

Limbic System

• The limbic system nowadays consists of 95% neocortex and 5% archiocortex
• The limbic system nowadays involves corpus collosum and cingular cortex
• The limbic system nowadays involves orbital and medial prefrontal cortex
• The limbic system nowadays involves the temporal cortex and parahippocampal cortex
• The limbic system nowadays involves Midbrain

Structures of the Limbic System

• Cortical structures of the limbic system include the cingular cortex
• Cortical structures of the limbic system include the hippocampus
• Cortical structures of the limbic system include Parahippocampal cortex
• Cortical structures of the limbic system include Orbital and medial prefrontal cortex and the insula
• Subcortical nuclei of the limbic system include Amygdala, Mammillary nucleus, and Basal ganglia (Ventral striatum – Nucleus accumbens)
• Diencephalic structures of the limbic system include the hypothalamic nuclei and Thalamic nuclei (anterior, intralaminar and medio dorsal groups)

Basal Ganglia

• Basal ganglia integrate cortical activity and provide a common behavior, e.g., body motion
• There are parallel networks that integrate eye movements, learning, cognition, and emotional aspects
• There are parallel networks that integrate body motion, eye movements, learning and cognition, and emotional aspects

Limbic Loop

• Involves the amygdala, hippocampus, orbitofrontal cortex, anterior cingulate, and temporal cortex
• The nucleus accumbens (ventral striatum) is involved
• Ventral globus pallidus/ substantia nigra pars reticularis is involved
• The medio dorsal nucleus (thalamus) is involved
• Connections between the prefrontal cortex and cingulate cortex are utilized

Papez Circuit

• The papez circuit involves sensor memory, motor memory, and associative (visual-motor) memory
• The papez circuit involves decisions, visual memory, language memory, and object memory
• The papez circuit utilizes the thalamus

Functional-Anatomical Division of the Limbic System

• The hippocampal-diencephalic and parahippocampal-retrosplenial network
• The temporo-amygdala-orbitofrontal network
• The medial default network
• The concept involves Catani et al., 2013

Hippocampal-Diencephalic Network Structures

• The fornix
• Ventral cingulum
• The mammillo-thalamic tract
• Functions include memory and spatial orientation

Temporo-Amygdala-Orbitofrontal Network Functions

• Behavioural inhibition
• Memory for temporally complex visual information
• Olfactory-gustatory-visceral functions
• Multimodal sensory integration
• Object-reward associational learning
• Outcome monitoring

Medial Default Network Functions

• Pain perception
• Self-knowledge
• Attention
• Metallization
• Empathy
• Response selection and action monitoring
• Autobiographical memory
• Personal perception

Amygdala

• Accessor basal nucleus, Central nucleus, Lateral nucleus, Basal nucleus, PAC - Periamygdaloid cortex, and Medial nucleus are components of the Amygdala

Amygdala Modulates Information Processing

• Attention increases for excitatory or unpleasant stimuli via perceptual processing
• Capacity of memory processing is increased via mnemonic processing in cases of emotional events

Amygdala and Cognition

• Hypofunction decreases motivation in processing of information
• Hyperfunction causes anxiety and phobias

Motivation

• Medial olfactory cortex (Septal area) participates in generation of sense of pleasure with motivation and reward

Orbitomedial Prefrontal Cortex

• Emotions consist of brain/body conditions, which includes somatic, stereotypically psychologic and subjective events
• Processes are result of an associative learning ability to give the emotional aspect to the sensory stimulus

Associative Emotional Learning

• Includes both the amygdala and orbitomedial prefrontal cortex
• Amygdala is a primary neuronal center which participates in associative learning
• Orbitomedial prefrontal cortex participates and executes learning process by intensifying it, especially during cognitive reinforcement (motivation)

Neurobiology of Feelings

• Triggering mechanisms: Interoceptive and exteroceptive stimuli
• The experience generates an immediate conscious experience of emotional feeling, working memory in prefrontal cortex
• This causes amygdala-dependent associative learning
• This causes hippocampal-dependent explicit memory

Emotions

• Involve somatic and visceral components
• Emotions include viscero-motor changes with ANS activity
• Emotions include stereotypic somato-motor changes of the face muscles

James-Lange Theory

• Emotions are a response to environmental changes (stress response)
• The concept involves William James (1842-1910) and Carl Lange (1834-1900)
• Event (sensory) ---> Arousal (visceral) ---> Interpretation (neural) ---> Emotions (cognitive)

Cannon-Bard Theory

• The Cannon-Bard emotions theory was developed in 1927
• Event (sensory) ---> Emotions (cognitive) and Arousal (visceral)
• The concept involves Walter Cannon (1871-1945) and Philip Bard (1898-1977)

Schacter-Singer Theory

• In 1962, the Cannon-Bard theory had a modification
• Event (sensory) ---> Arousal (visceral) ---> Reasoning (neural) ---> Emotions (cognitive)
• The concept involves Stanley Schacter (1922-1997) and Jerome Singer (1934-2010)

Schacter-Singer Two-Factor Theory

• There was a modification of the Schacter-Singer theory in order to connect theory with exact emotions
• Cognitive labels and arousal (visceral) causes emotions
• The concept involves Stanley Schacter (1922-1997) and Jerome Singer (1934-2010)