Learning and Classical Conditioning Concepts

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Questions and Answers

What do the terms 'conditioned' and 'unconditioned' signify in classical conditioning?

Conditioned indicates the presence of a stimulus, unconditioned indicates the absence of a stimulus.

Conditioned means learned, unconditioned means natural. (correct)

Conditioned refers to voluntary actions, unconditioned refers to involuntary actions.

Conditioned means natural, unconditioned means learned.

Which component of classical conditioning elicits a natural response without prior learning?

Neutral stimulus (NS)

Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (correct)

Conditioned response (CR)

Conditioned stimulus (CS)

In Pavlov's experiments, what was the original neutral stimulus (NS)?

The presence of food

The sight of the experimenter

The dogs themselves

The sound of the metronome (correct)

What occurs during the conditioning process in classical conditioning?

A neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of an unconditioned response (UCR)?

Feeling hunger at the sight of food Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of consistently pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus?

The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes an unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

It triggers a response that is innate and unlearned. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the unconditioned response (UCR) in classical conditioning?

It is the response that occurs naturally to an unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to a neutral stimulus during classical conditioning?

It transforms into the conditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding classical conditioning?

Conditioning can be reversed without losing the original unconditioned response. Signup and view all the answers

What defines extinction in classical conditioning?

The decrease in conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes stimulus generalization?

It is the tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to evoke a similar response. Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of spontaneous recovery?

The conditioned response re-emerges after extinction. Signup and view all the answers

How does evaluative conditioning alter responses to stimuli?

By pairing the stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes between an unconditioned response and a conditioned response?

The unconditioned response is triggered by the unconditioned stimulus, while the conditioned response is triggered by the conditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

In Classical Conditioning, what is necessary to achieve extinction?

To repeatedly present the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of positive punishment?

Receiving a speeding ticket for violating traffic laws Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes negative punishment?

Taking away a video game for bad behavior Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary disadvantage of using punishment as a behavior modification technique?

It may fail to produce long-lasting behavioral change Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between continuous and partial reinforcement?

Partial reinforcement can lead to more robust behavior retention Signup and view all the answers

Which type of schedule would reinforce a behavior based on the number of responses made?

Fixed-ratio schedule Signup and view all the answers

How does receiving a ticket for illegal parking function in terms of behavior modification?

As positive punishment, introducing an unpleasant consequence Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the potential effects of physical punishment on individuals?

It promotes physical aggression as a solution Signup and view all the answers

What happens in a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement?

Reinforcement is provided after a random number of responses Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of a Skinner box in operant conditioning?

To study the effects of reinforcement in a controlled setting. Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary reinforcer?

A reinforcer that satisfies a biological need. Signup and view all the answers

How does shaping influence behavior learning?

It reinforces increasingly precise approximations of the desired behavior. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about negative reinforcers is true?

They can increase the likelihood of a response when the unpleasant stimulus is removed. Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a secondary reinforcer?

Money acquired through work. Signup and view all the answers

What does reinforcement do in classical conditioning?

It increases the probability of a preceding behavior being repeated. Signup and view all the answers

In the context of pressing the snooze button, what type of reinforcement is at play?

Negative reinforcement by removing the unpleasant feeling of waking up. Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome for the rats that received no reward during the first 10 trial days but were reinforced afterward?

They eventually outperformed the rats that received a constant reward. Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes positive reinforcers from negative reinforcers?

Positive reinforcers add pleasant stimuli, while negative reinforcers remove unpleasant stimuli. Signup and view all the answers

According to Bandura's findings, what influences the likelihood of a child imitating observed behaviors?

The perceived consequences of the model's behavior. Signup and view all the answers

What is one effect of high levels of media violence on viewers?

It increases the likelihood of aggressive behavior in real-life situations. Signup and view all the answers

What key concept does observational learning predominantly rely on?

The actions of a model and their consequences. Signup and view all the answers

Which group of rats had the highest initial learning when rewards were introduced?

Rats that were rewarded only after delays. Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of a fixed-ratio schedule?

Reinforcement is provided after a specific number of responses. Signup and view all the answers

Which schedule is likely to produce a high rate of response that is resistant to extinction?

Variable-ratio schedule Signup and view all the answers

How does a variable-interval schedule differ from a fixed-interval schedule?

The time between reinforcements changes unpredictably. Signup and view all the answers

What process involves learning to differentiate between stimuli in operant conditioning?

Discrimination Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of using a variable-ratio schedule in gambling behavior?

It results in addictive behaviors that are difficult to modify. Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes learning that is not immediately apparent but occurs without reinforcement?

Latent learning Signup and view all the answers

A discriminative stimulus indicates what in reinforcement learning?

The likelihood that a behavior will be reinforced. Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of a fixed-interval schedule on response rates?

Leads to consistently low rates of response. Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Learning

Learning is defined as the process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, or behaviors.
Learning involves understanding how new information is acquired and how existing knowledge is modified.
Learning can be divided into various categories depending on what helps, and what hinders the process.
A key aspect of learning is the role of associations, which will be discussed.

Pavlov's Unexpected Discovery

Pavlov was studying digestion in dogs.
He observed that dogs salivated in response to stimuli associated with food, even in the absence of food.
This observation led to the discovery of classical conditioning.
Learned associations between stimuli were found even when food was absent.
Dogs responded to stimuli not only based on biological need, but as a result of learning.

Classical Conditioning

A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus naturally producing a response.
Involves five primary components
- Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially does not elicit a particular response
- Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response
- Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural response to UCS
- Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Formerly neutral stimulus, now triggers a response after association
- Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS

The Basics of Classical Conditioning

Neutral stimulus (NS): A stimulus that before conditioning does not naturally bring about a response of interest
Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned- Unconditioned response (UCR): A response that is natural and needs no training (e.g., salivation at the smell of food)
Conditioned stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus.
Conditioned Response (CR): A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus.

Classical Conditioning Steps

Neutral stimulus (NS) does not elicit a specific response
Pair NS repeatedly with UCS, which elicits a UCR
Eventually, the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), eliciting a conditioned response (CR)

The Basics of Classical Conditioning- Remember

Conditioned = learned; unconditioned = not learned
An unconditioned stimulus leads to an unconditioned response
An unconditioned stimulus triggers the unconditioned response innately
During conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus is transformed into the conditioned stimulus

The Basics of Classical Conditioning-Stimulus and Response

Neutral stimulus & conditioned stimulus are the same stimulus after conditioning.
Unconditioned response and conditioned response are the same response.
The difference between the responses is what triggers them: the unconditioned response is triggered by the unconditioned stimulus whilst the conditioned response is triggered by the conditioned stimulus.

Unlearning?

What if we want to unlearn something?
What if there is an association between two things we do not want to continue?
How do we break that association?

Extinction

Occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears.
To produce extinction, one needs to break the association between the CS and UCS
Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the subsequent unconditioned stimulus
Example: The bell followed by no meat, repeatedly.

Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

After a conditioned stimulus elicits a response, similar stimuli will elicit a similar response
The more similarity between stimuli, the more likely generalization will occur
If a stimulus is very different, there will be no similar response—discrimination.
Example: Pigeons learn that a green light signals food, whereas a red light signals no food.

Evaluative Conditioning

Changing the liking of a stimulus by pairing it with other positive or negative stimuli.
Pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that triggers positive reactions leads to the neutral stimulus becoming a conditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Fears & Phobias

Classical conditioning can lead to the development of fears and phobias
Example: Watson's Little Albert experiment, where a white rat was paired with a loud noise, eliciting a fear response.

Conditioned Taste Aversions

Develop aversions to foods followed by nausea or illness
Example: Seligman's “sauce Bearnaise syndrome”
Lengthy delay between food and illness—why only the sauce as a CS?
Biological preparedness: organisms more readily learn certain associations.

Operant Conditioning

Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened depending on its consequences
Unlike classical conditioning, behaviours are not automatic or involuntary responses.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

Responses leading to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated
Responses followed by negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated

The Basics of Operant Conditioning

Thorndike's research influenced B. F. Skinner, who created the Skinner box.
Thorndike's goal was to get cats to learn to obtain food by leaving the box; in the Skinner box animals learn to obtain food by operating on their environment within the box.
Skinner became interested in specifying how behaviour varied as a result of alterations in the environment.

Reinforcement

Process by which a stimulus strengthens the probability of a preceding behavior being repeated
A reinforcer is any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a preceding behaviour occurring again.
Primary reinforcer: satisfies biological needs (food, water, warmth)
Secondary reinforcer: gains reinforcing properties through association with a primary reinforcer

Shaping

Process of teaching a complex behavior by reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
Start by reinforcing any behavior similar to the target
Gradually reinforce only responses closer to the desired behavior
Finally, reinforce only the desired behavior

Positive and Negative Reinforcers

Positive reinforcer: stimulus added to the environment increasing a response
Negative reinforcer: unpleasant stimulus removed increasing a response

Positive and Negative Punishment

Punishment: stimulus decreasing the probability that a behavior will occur again
Positive punishment: introducing an unpleasant stimulus
Negative punishment: removing a pleasant stimulus

Schedules of Reinforcement

Different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement
Continuous reinforcement: reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs
Partial reinforcement: reinforcing a behavior some but not all times

Schedules of Reinforcement (Two Main Categories)

Fixed-ratio schedules
Variable-ratio schedules
Fixed-interval schedules
Variable-interval schedules

Discrimination and Generalization

Similar to classical conditioning, operant conditioning involves discrimination and generalization.
Stimulus control training: process by which people learn to discriminate stimuli.
Reinforcers follow responses based on the presence or absence of a stimulus.

Latent Learning

Learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs.
Learning can occur without reinforcement.
Example: Rats learning a maze without reinforcement, then performing well when reinforcement became available.

Observational Learning

Learning by observing another person and watching whether they are rewarded or punished for their behavior
Example: Observational learning in Bandura's famous Bobo Doll experiments.

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Description

Explore the key concepts of learning, particularly focusing on classical conditioning as discovered by Pavlov. Understand how associations between stimuli are formed and how they influence responses. This quiz will guide you through the essential elements of learning theories.