Learning and Classical Conditioning Concepts

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Questions and Answers

What do the terms 'conditioned' and 'unconditioned' signify in classical conditioning?

  • Conditioned indicates the presence of a stimulus, unconditioned indicates the absence of a stimulus.
  • Conditioned means learned, unconditioned means natural. (correct)
  • Conditioned refers to voluntary actions, unconditioned refers to involuntary actions.
  • Conditioned means natural, unconditioned means learned.

Which component of classical conditioning elicits a natural response without prior learning?

  • Neutral stimulus (NS)
  • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS) (correct)
  • Conditioned response (CR)
  • Conditioned stimulus (CS)

In Pavlov's experiments, what was the original neutral stimulus (NS)?

  • The presence of food
  • The sight of the experimenter
  • The dogs themselves
  • The sound of the metronome (correct)

What occurs during the conditioning process in classical conditioning?

<p>A neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned stimulus. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is an example of an unconditioned response (UCR)?

<p>Feeling hunger at the sight of food (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of consistently pairing a neutral stimulus with an unconditioned stimulus?

<p>The neutral stimulus becomes a conditioned stimulus. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes an unconditioned stimulus in classical conditioning?

<p>It triggers a response that is innate and unlearned. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the unconditioned response (UCR) in classical conditioning?

<p>It is the response that occurs naturally to an unconditioned stimulus. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to a neutral stimulus during classical conditioning?

<p>It transforms into the conditioned stimulus. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements is true regarding classical conditioning?

<p>Conditioning can be reversed without losing the original unconditioned response. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What defines extinction in classical conditioning?

<p>The decrease in conditioned response when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the unconditioned stimulus. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes stimulus generalization?

<p>It is the tendency for stimuli similar to the conditioned stimulus to evoke a similar response. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of spontaneous recovery?

<p>The conditioned response re-emerges after extinction. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does evaluative conditioning alter responses to stimuli?

<p>By pairing the stimulus with other positive or negative stimuli. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes between an unconditioned response and a conditioned response?

<p>The unconditioned response is triggered by the unconditioned stimulus, while the conditioned response is triggered by the conditioned stimulus. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In Classical Conditioning, what is necessary to achieve extinction?

<p>To repeatedly present the conditioned stimulus without the unconditioned stimulus. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of positive punishment?

<p>Receiving a speeding ticket for violating traffic laws (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following describes negative punishment?

<p>Taking away a video game for bad behavior (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary disadvantage of using punishment as a behavior modification technique?

<p>It may fail to produce long-lasting behavioral change (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key difference between continuous and partial reinforcement?

<p>Partial reinforcement can lead to more robust behavior retention (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which type of schedule would reinforce a behavior based on the number of responses made?

<p>Fixed-ratio schedule (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does receiving a ticket for illegal parking function in terms of behavior modification?

<p>As positive punishment, introducing an unpleasant consequence (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the potential effects of physical punishment on individuals?

<p>It promotes physical aggression as a solution (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens in a variable-ratio schedule of reinforcement?

<p>Reinforcement is provided after a random number of responses (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of a Skinner box in operant conditioning?

<p>To study the effects of reinforcement in a controlled setting. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary reinforcer?

<p>A reinforcer that satisfies a biological need. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does shaping influence behavior learning?

<p>It reinforces increasingly precise approximations of the desired behavior. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about negative reinforcers is true?

<p>They can increase the likelihood of a response when the unpleasant stimulus is removed. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is an example of a secondary reinforcer?

<p>Money acquired through work. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does reinforcement do in classical conditioning?

<p>It increases the probability of a preceding behavior being repeated. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of pressing the snooze button, what type of reinforcement is at play?

<p>Negative reinforcement by removing the unpleasant feeling of waking up. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome for the rats that received no reward during the first 10 trial days but were reinforced afterward?

<p>They eventually outperformed the rats that received a constant reward. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes positive reinforcers from negative reinforcers?

<p>Positive reinforcers add pleasant stimuli, while negative reinforcers remove unpleasant stimuli. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Bandura's findings, what influences the likelihood of a child imitating observed behaviors?

<p>The perceived consequences of the model's behavior. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is one effect of high levels of media violence on viewers?

<p>It increases the likelihood of aggressive behavior in real-life situations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What key concept does observational learning predominantly rely on?

<p>The actions of a model and their consequences. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which group of rats had the highest initial learning when rewards were introduced?

<p>Rats that were rewarded only after delays. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a characteristic of a fixed-ratio schedule?

<p>Reinforcement is provided after a specific number of responses. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which schedule is likely to produce a high rate of response that is resistant to extinction?

<p>Variable-ratio schedule (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does a variable-interval schedule differ from a fixed-interval schedule?

<p>The time between reinforcements changes unpredictably. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What process involves learning to differentiate between stimuli in operant conditioning?

<p>Discrimination (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the outcome of using a variable-ratio schedule in gambling behavior?

<p>It results in addictive behaviors that are difficult to modify. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which term describes learning that is not immediately apparent but occurs without reinforcement?

<p>Latent learning (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A discriminative stimulus indicates what in reinforcement learning?

<p>The likelihood that a behavior will be reinforced. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of a fixed-interval schedule on response rates?

<p>Leads to consistently low rates of response. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Classical Conditioning

Learning where a neutral stimulus (NS) becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS) by repeatedly pairing it with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS).

Neutral Stimulus (NS)

A stimulus that doesn't naturally trigger a response before learning.

Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS)

A stimulus that automatically triggers a response without any learning.

Unconditioned Response (UCR)

The automatic response to the unconditioned stimulus.

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Conditioned Stimulus (CS)

A previously neutral stimulus that, after being paired with the UCS, now triggers a response.

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Conditioned Response (CR)

The learned response to the conditioned stimulus.

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Learning

The process of acquiring new knowledge or skills.

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Pavlov's Discovery

Dogs salivating in response to stimuli associated with food, demonstrating learning.

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Operant Conditioning

Learning through consequences, where actions are influenced by their outcomes. Behaviors with rewarding consequences become more likely, while behaviors with negative consequences become less likely.

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Skinner Box

A controlled environment for studying animal learning in operant conditioning. It allows researchers to manipulate stimuli and observe behavioral responses.

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Reinforcement

The process that increases the likelihood of a behavior occurring again.

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Primary Reinforcer

A stimulus that satisfies a basic biological need, like food or warmth, and is inherently rewarding

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Secondary Reinforcer

A stimulus that becomes rewarding because of its association with a primary reinforcer, like money or praise.

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Shaping

Teaching a complex behavior by rewarding increasingly closer approximations of the desired behavior.

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Positive Reinforcer

Adding a stimulus to the environment that increases the likelihood of a behavior happening again.

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Negative Reinforcer

Removing an unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior happening again.

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What happens during conditioning?

A neutral stimulus (NS) is repeatedly paired with an unconditioned stimulus (UCS), turning the NS into a conditioned stimulus (CS).

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What is the difference between the CS and the NS?

Both are the same stimulus! The NS is called the CS once it triggers a response due to the association with the UCS.

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What's the relationship between the UCR and the CR?

They are the same response, triggered by different stimuli. The UCR is triggered by the UCS, while the CR is triggered by the CS.

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What is extinction?

The conditioned response gradually disappears when the CS is repeatedly presented without the UCS.

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Spontaneous Recovery

The reappearance of a previously extinguished conditioned response after a period of rest.

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Stimulus Generalization

Similar stimuli to the original CS also trigger the CR.

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Stimulus Discrimination

The ability to differentiate between the original CS and other stimuli, not triggering the CR.

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Evaluative conditioning

Changing the liking of a stimulus by pairing it with positive or negative stimuli.

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Latent Learning

Learning that occurs but is not demonstrated until there is an incentive to do so.

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Observational Learning

Learning by observing others, their actions, and the consequences of those actions.

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Modeling

The process of demonstrating a behavior for another person to observe and learn.

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How does media violence affect viewers?

Increased susceptibility to aggression, lowered inhibitions against violence, distorted understanding of others' behavior, and desensitization to violence.

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Example of Observational Learning?

An infant imitating an adult's behavior they observe on television.

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Positive Punishment

Introducing an unpleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

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Negative Punishment

Removing a pleasant stimulus to decrease the likelihood of a behavior being repeated.

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Continuous Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs.

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Partial Reinforcement

Reinforcing a behavior some, but not all, times it occurs.

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Fixed-ratio Schedule

A schedule where reinforcement is given after a specific number of responses.

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Variable-ratio Schedule

A schedule where reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses.

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Why is reinforcement better than punishment?

Reinforcement focuses on encouraging desired behavior, while punishment only decreases undesirable behavior. This can lead to more positive and lasting changes.

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What are the disadvantages of punishment?

Punishment can be ineffective, may not produce lasting change, and can be harmful by promoting aggression or lowering self-esteem.

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Fixed-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where a reward is given for the first response after a fixed amount of time has elapsed. This leads to low rates of responding, with an increase in responding right before the reward is expected.

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Variable-Interval Schedule

A reinforcement schedule where rewards are given for the first response after a varying amount of time has elapsed. This produces steady rates of responding, but it might take longer for the behavior to extinguish.

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Stimulus Control Training

A training process that helps individuals learn to discriminate between stimuli by reinforcing behavior only in the presence of a specific stimulus.

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Discriminative Stimulus

A stimulus that signals the likelihood of reinforcement for a specific behavior. It serves as a cue for the individual to perform the behavior.

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Study Notes

Learning

  • Learning is defined as the process of acquiring new knowledge, skills, or behaviors.
  • Learning involves understanding how new information is acquired and how existing knowledge is modified.
  • Learning can be divided into various categories depending on what helps, and what hinders the process.
  • A key aspect of learning is the role of associations, which will be discussed.

Pavlov's Unexpected Discovery

  • Pavlov was studying digestion in dogs.
  • He observed that dogs salivated in response to stimuli associated with food, even in the absence of food.
  • This observation led to the discovery of classical conditioning.
  • Learned associations between stimuli were found even when food was absent.
  • Dogs responded to stimuli not only based on biological need, but as a result of learning.

Classical Conditioning

  • A learning process where a neutral stimulus becomes associated with a stimulus naturally producing a response.
  • Involves five primary components
    • Neutral Stimulus (NS): Initially does not elicit a particular response
    • Unconditioned Stimulus (UCS): Naturally triggers a response
    • Unconditioned Response (UCR): Natural response to UCS
    • Conditioned Stimulus (CS): Formerly neutral stimulus, now triggers a response after association
    • Conditioned Response (CR): Learned response to CS

The Basics of Classical Conditioning

  • Neutral stimulus (NS): A stimulus that before conditioning does not naturally bring about a response of interest
  • Unconditioned stimulus (UCS): A stimulus that naturally brings about a particular response without having been learned- Unconditioned response (UCR): A response that is natural and needs no training (e.g., salivation at the smell of food)
  • Conditioned stimulus (CS): A neutral stimulus that has been paired with an unconditioned stimulus to bring about a response formerly caused only by the unconditioned stimulus.
  • Conditioned Response (CR): A response that, after conditioning, follows a previously neutral stimulus.

Classical Conditioning Steps

  • Neutral stimulus (NS) does not elicit a specific response
  • Pair NS repeatedly with UCS, which elicits a UCR
  • Eventually, the NS becomes a conditioned stimulus (CS), eliciting a conditioned response (CR)

The Basics of Classical Conditioning- Remember

  • Conditioned = learned; unconditioned = not learned
  • An unconditioned stimulus leads to an unconditioned response
  • An unconditioned stimulus triggers the unconditioned response innately
  • During conditioning, a previously neutral stimulus is transformed into the conditioned stimulus

The Basics of Classical Conditioning-Stimulus and Response

  • Neutral stimulus & conditioned stimulus are the same stimulus after conditioning.
  • Unconditioned response and conditioned response are the same response.
  • The difference between the responses is what triggers them: the unconditioned response is triggered by the unconditioned stimulus whilst the conditioned response is triggered by the conditioned stimulus.

Unlearning?

  • What if we want to unlearn something?
  • What if there is an association between two things we do not want to continue?
  • How do we break that association?

Extinction

  • Occurs when a previously conditioned response decreases in frequency and eventually disappears.
  • To produce extinction, one needs to break the association between the CS and UCS
  • Extinction occurs when the conditioned stimulus is repeatedly presented without the subsequent unconditioned stimulus
  • Example: The bell followed by no meat, repeatedly.

Stimulus Generalization and Discrimination

  • After a conditioned stimulus elicits a response, similar stimuli will elicit a similar response
  • The more similarity between stimuli, the more likely generalization will occur
  • If a stimulus is very different, there will be no similar response—discrimination.
  • Example: Pigeons learn that a green light signals food, whereas a red light signals no food.

Evaluative Conditioning

  • Changing the liking of a stimulus by pairing it with other positive or negative stimuli.
  • Pairing a neutral stimulus with a stimulus that triggers positive reactions leads to the neutral stimulus becoming a conditioned stimulus.

Conditioned Fears & Phobias

  • Classical conditioning can lead to the development of fears and phobias
  • Example: Watson's Little Albert experiment, where a white rat was paired with a loud noise, eliciting a fear response.

Conditioned Taste Aversions

  • Develop aversions to foods followed by nausea or illness
  • Example: Seligman's “sauce Bearnaise syndrome”
  • Lengthy delay between food and illness—why only the sauce as a CS?
  • Biological preparedness: organisms more readily learn certain associations.

Operant Conditioning

  • Learning in which a voluntary response is strengthened or weakened depending on its consequences
  • Unlike classical conditioning, behaviours are not automatic or involuntary responses.

Thorndike's Law of Effect

  • Responses leading to satisfying consequences are more likely to be repeated
  • Responses followed by negative outcomes are less likely to be repeated

The Basics of Operant Conditioning

  • Thorndike's research influenced B. F. Skinner, who created the Skinner box.
  • Thorndike's goal was to get cats to learn to obtain food by leaving the box; in the Skinner box animals learn to obtain food by operating on their environment within the box.
  • Skinner became interested in specifying how behaviour varied as a result of alterations in the environment.

Reinforcement

  • Process by which a stimulus strengthens the probability of a preceding behavior being repeated
  • A reinforcer is any stimulus that increases the likelihood of a preceding behaviour occurring again.
  • Primary reinforcer: satisfies biological needs (food, water, warmth)
  • Secondary reinforcer: gains reinforcing properties through association with a primary reinforcer

Shaping

  • Process of teaching a complex behavior by reinforcing closer and closer approximations of the desired behavior
  • Start by reinforcing any behavior similar to the target
  • Gradually reinforce only responses closer to the desired behavior
  • Finally, reinforce only the desired behavior

Positive and Negative Reinforcers

  • Positive reinforcer: stimulus added to the environment increasing a response
  • Negative reinforcer: unpleasant stimulus removed increasing a response

Positive and Negative Punishment

  • Punishment: stimulus decreasing the probability that a behavior will occur again
  • Positive punishment: introducing an unpleasant stimulus
  • Negative punishment: removing a pleasant stimulus

Schedules of Reinforcement

  • Different patterns of frequency and timing of reinforcement
  • Continuous reinforcement: reinforcing a behavior every time it occurs
  • Partial reinforcement: reinforcing a behavior some but not all times

Schedules of Reinforcement (Two Main Categories)

  • Fixed-ratio schedules
  • Variable-ratio schedules
  • Fixed-interval schedules
  • Variable-interval schedules

Discrimination and Generalization

  • Similar to classical conditioning, operant conditioning involves discrimination and generalization.
  • Stimulus control training: process by which people learn to discriminate stimuli.
  • Reinforcers follow responses based on the presence or absence of a stimulus.

Latent Learning

  • Learning that is not apparent from behavior when it first occurs.
  • Learning can occur without reinforcement.
  • Example: Rats learning a maze without reinforcement, then performing well when reinforcement became available.

Observational Learning

  • Learning by observing another person and watching whether they are rewarded or punished for their behavior
  • Example: Observational learning in Bandura's famous Bobo Doll experiments.

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