Learning and Behaviorism

Learning

• Learning involves acquiring new and relatively enduring information or behaviors through experience
• Learning results in permanent changes in behavior and mental processes through practice and experience
• Neurological changes occur throughout a person's lifetime, stored in the nervous system as a result of learning
• Habituation is the simplest form of learning, involving adapting to unchanging (repeated) stimuli
• Evolution leads to changes in behaviors that accumulate across generations, stored in genes

Behaviorists

• Behaviorism emerged because Don Watson believed psychology should focus on observable behavior to be a valuable science
• Behaviorists believed knowledge is learned and experiences shape growth
• Beginning behaviorism findings were often first performed on animals, such as Ivan Pavlov's classical conditioning experiments with dogs

Associative Learning

• Associative learning occurs when certain events are associated together
• Classical conditioning involves learning by associating environmental stimuli and behavioral responses
• Psychic Secretion and Pavlov Conditioning refer to classical conditioning
• Learning through association helps one recognize that one event predicts another
• Ivan Pavlov studied digestive systems in dogs and discovered classical conditioning
• Pavlov noticed dogs salivating at the sight of Igor(assistant), associating him with food

Pavlov's Experiment Discoveries

• Acquisition weakens when conditioned stimulus no longer signals desired effect
• Conditioned stimuli can include smells, gestures, words etc
• Conditioned responses are involuntary

Pavlov's Apparatus/Experiment elements

• An unconditioned stimulus (US) does not need to be learned
• An unconditioned response (UR) also doesn't need to be learned
• A neutral stimulus (NS) doesn't initially prompt a response
• A conditioned stimulus (CS) is learned through association (US + NS = CS)
• A conditioned response (CR) is a learned response to a specific stimuli (CS)
• Neutral stimuli paired with US can become CS and elicit a conditioned response

Pavlov's Conditioning Process

• Before conditioning:
  • Meat powder leads to salivation (US to UR)
  • Tone leads to no salivation (neutral stimulus)
• During learning:
  • Meat powder and tone are repeatedly paired, causing an unconditioned response
• After learning:
  • Tone (CS) leads to salivation (CR)
• Pavlov's early experiments were accurate due to his detail-oriented approach

Importance of Timing in Conditioning

• The timing of presenting the neutral stimulus with the unconditioned stimulus matters greatly
• Forward conditioning means presenting conditioned stimulus before unconditioned stimulus
• Delayed conditioning presents conditioned stimulus and keeps it present along with unconditioned stimulus
• Trace conditioning presents the conditioned stimulus then removes it before presenting unconditioned stimulus
• Forward conditioning is preferred because it deals with prediction
• Prediction is the fastest way to condition.
• Delayed conditioning results in a stronger learning association overall, because conditioned stimulus stays present
• Simultaneous conditioning has conditioned stimulus and unconditioned stimulus presented at same time
• Backward conditioning presents unconditioned stimulus, removes it, then presents conditioned stimulus

Other Terms in Classical Conditioning

• Acquisition is learning the classically conditioned stimulus-response relationship
• Gradual strengthening of conditioned response in response to the formerly neutral stimulus (NS becomes CS)
• Extinction involves gradually diminishing/weakening a conditioned response
• Spontaneous recovery—Reappearance (seemingly out of nowhere) of a weakened conditioned response
• Spontaneous recovery isn't as strong as response during initial acquisition
• Stimulus generalization is a conditioned response to stimuli similar to the original
  • You get stung by a bee and then you're afraid of similar flying insects
• Stimulus discrimination means learning to respond differently to stimuli that differ from the conditioned stimulus
  • Pavlov's dogs learned to respond to high-pitched tones but not low-pitched ones
• Stimulus generalization and discrimination aid human survival

Higher Order Conditioning

• Second-order conditioning involves turning a neutral stimulus into a conditioned stimulus using an already conditioned stimulus
• The results are usually less strong
• Repeated pairing links a neutral stimulus with a CS
• The new neutral stimulus eventually becomes a CS, and one CS can be used to create another CS

Learning Phobias

• John B. Watson explored applying classical conditioning to humans regarding phobias
• In the Little Albert Experiment(11 month), Albert was initially unafraid of white mice
• Albert was startled by a loud noise created by Watson striking a steel bar
• Watson presented Albert with a white rabbit while banging hammer creating noise, 7 times in a row

Results of Little Albert Experiment

• Albert became afraid of white mice and rabbits, dogs and other furry animals
• Stimulus generalization happened
• Watson conditioned an emotional response
• Researchers noted ethical concerns, including lack of video of acquisition process and no operational definition for fear used

Behavior Therapy in Classical Conditioning

• Systematic desensitization involves progressively replacing anxiety with relaxation to acquired stimulus
  • Treating spider phobias involves taking baby steps over time rather than immediate exposure
• Aversive conditioning associates unpleasant state with unwanted behaviour
  • Aversions can be created via advertisement to reduce consumption of drugs and also aversive therapy for substance abuse/alcoholism
• Giving antabuse to make alcoholics feel sick lowers alcohol intake but only 20% took medication
• Antabuse led to unintended stimulus discrimination to specific alcohol

Considerations in Behavioral Therapy

• Biological preparedness influences participating in generalization or discrimination
• Mice only need to get sick once from water/food to permanently avoid the source; this is one-trial learning
• Mice condition easier with taste and birds with vision
• The type of stimulus matters
• People learn dangerous associations, like angry faces or snakes
• Taste aversions are classically conditioned negative reactions to a taste associated with illness
• Aversions can be strong in rats due to survival
• Time window for establishing aversion may be days long
• Aversions link novel over familiar foods with a distinctive taste to sickness

Role Of Cognition in Conditioning

• Expectations and thoughts matter
• Not how much pairing occurs but how reliably conditioned stimulus predicts that of unconditioned stimulus
• Expecting reliable stimuli matters

Voluntary Behavior & Consequences

• Voluntary behavior is learned by associating actions with consequences or rewards
  • Operant conditioning is involved
• Classical conditioning was about involuntary behavior, operant conditioning is about voluntary behaviors and rewards and consequences
• The law of effect involves repeating responses followed by positive outcomes and avoiding those with negative outcomes

Thorndike's Experiment

• Cats were placed in a tricky puzzle box
• During first trials, didn't know about lever and accidentally stepped on it
• In decreasing order- explore, sniff, groom, reach, scratch, reach with their paws
• During later trials, cats tended to press the lever to escape or get rewarded
• In decreasing order- press the lever, explore, groom, reach, scratch, reach with their paw and sniff
• Actions of lever pressing will result in reward

Shaping Behaviors

• Reinforcing small successful approximations of the desired behavior
  • Pigeon example

Operant Conditioning Terms

• Also known as instrumental conditioning and skinnerian conditioning
• Reinforcement strengthens behaviour
• Reinforcement increases the likelihood of behaviour happening again
  • Positive vs. negative and primary vs. conditioned (secondary)
• Punishment decreases behaviour
• Punishment decreases likelihood of behaviour happening again
• Positive means adding something, negative means taking something away in situations to encourage or discourage behaviour

Reinforcement schedule

• Continuous reinforcement only good for short term
• Partial reinforcement better for teaching behaviors over time: breaks into Ratio and Interval Schedules

Ratio schedule

• Reward based on # of responses
• Fixed Ratio: reinforced after fixed # of responses
• Variable Ratio: reinforced after changing # of responses

Interval Schedule

• Reward based on time passed
• Fixed Interval: after fixed amount of time
• Variable Interval: after changing amount of time

Behavioral Therapy in Operant Conditioning

• Inspiration from operant conditioning
• Behavior Modification: reinforcing good behaviors, ignoring bad
• Token economy- Token for desired behavior exchanged for tangible reward

Considerations In Behavioral Therapy

• Learned Helplessness- behavior has no positive outcome, leads to no action
• Beliefs about Reinforcement- believing that we need to get reinforced can cause us to behave positive
• Contrast affects- reward lead to increased behavior, amount doesnt matter, the contrast before and after does

Cognition and Behavior

• Self-Evaluations involve continuing behavior creating positive feelings while avoiding those associated with negative ones
• Biological constraints cause us to be incapable of learning certain behaviors
  • Limits on types of behaviors that can be learned

Classical v. Operant Responses

• Classical is before the behavior, responses are involuntary
• Operant - delivery controlled by participant (after behavior), responses are voluntary

Cognitive Processes & Learning

• Cognitive map represents layout
• Even know we don't have bird's eye, we can find place in layout
• Latent Learning:
• Hidden learning exists w/o behavioral signs
• In one experiment, some recived reward for completing maze, didn't, some reward after first few trials
• Receiving reward have more consists decreased error, greatest dropped in error: rats received reward after a while

Mirror Neurons and Learning

• Mirror Neurons: frontal lobe that believe fire when we perform actions/observe other
• Accidental discover that neurons fir in when reach object/ scientist also teach for it
• Help us empathize with others

Learning with Observation

Obsertational learning/Social Learning theory Learn other and observe

4 processes for learning observation:

• Paying attention :w/out distraction 1st learning ( can't reproduce behavior)
• Retention- remember and recall
• Reproduce - capacity to do it, e.g cannot do gymnastics from watching it
• Have to be motivated: ex. If classmate call name will reproduce to not get called stupid Punish + reinforcements in operative. cause learning motivator obserational

Antiocil outcomes/Impact

Media- by violent that are demonstrated and encouraged Children media character act acts of major violent Tycial Amer child sees 8000 murders and 1000 violent act

Role Parents

The most positive role model bc children always see them

Training

Watch other retain what they

Help

See others in helping others encourage the same

Memory definition and function

• Most studied areas in psych
• Memory = persistence learning over time by encoding, storage, retrieve
• Can define as into that represent what know
• Limit of mem allow understand or forgetting

Important Memory Terms

• Recall what know by earlier in time Retrieve w/o Cues Short answer exam
• Recognitions is known w/o cues Mc. Test choice
• Relearning learn quickly after learn again

Saving is real learning, why distributed is encourage ###. Forgetting How to how mems fade/ retrieve

Memory Models

• Encoding-getting info into system- translated into neural code Store is retain Retirevel: How get memory

3 stages model

• Store bins in memory 1969 Atkinson shittin Senory register memory Working -short Long. Term mem

Sensory & Long-Term Memory

purpose: holds sensory ( feel hear) limit hold lots short duration

Long term

more forever- store in LTM unlimit forever

SR→ LTM

Elabort rehearsal NEEDS to performed Mainternce: over again but short

automatic processing

Concusily and attendance can they direct LTM Was beleive that went short first- proved wrong Memory fallible Any it's nor get move from SR/ STM to LTM is lost

Sensory Registers

Quick record. Sensory. into Auto without enter Subconscious Attend needed to from STM People black square with 12 letters see/ repeat ask in black- could 4 to 5 of letters- know are more Associate each letter with tone after. Played- knew letters

Short Store

Tends have longer mems

Miller

Capacity of STM - number +/- Scientific. Study Proven Chunk Area code add

###. Mnemonics Aid:use image. Aid Need source Kids don't use/tend bad- good Can help richer large- can learn/remember easier

Singular Mnemonics

Roy GBiv I. Before Spring Personal Doesn't transfer

Multipule Mnemonics

To remember Set.Loci To known/ home Remember imagine items to recall the list

example

YOREMMER. BETTEER In STM not able to know Chunk and together Try org better letter vs plot works

Rehearse

More into to LTM AND short to mem

Space effects

Tendeny

Practice

Long intervals vs. Aka Lower chances of LTM

Short it gets/long day or hour with breaks Higher chance to STM to LTM Higher Test Testing better/review improve learn

Diff

• better then children: has to map all the mem

###. STMem verbal/ confuse auditory

Verbral

Confuse same sound

Semanic

• Memory-Pro - active
• Easy remember- ask re remember bad then all remember fruit

Baddely

• Working memory
• Memory: all active up all things
• Ex cutive- resources initate + rehearsal divided loop by : auditory/visual
• long: varietys
• explicit/ dule trucks mem Conciusly aware/rehears Facts/ general
• Implicate no one conscously
• pro code -skill
• CL: Con - editioned

accuracy

Recalling exact Contently calling contain Constrictive/ normalize

• Script that repeats so much in head/ task

Mems" Experiment

Word bed 40% sleep ( was word) By form relations existing in knowles/ mem

• *Hippocamp-is never alone - engage in Paralled

Autio

INFO ABOUT YOU Split by details and Interpret

3 memory type

• personal"image
• Facts : answers to image Generic- happens over time

Construct mems - verberations

• Reconstruct - by inis existing knowl

Retrieve imrpoved if codtitions cover are similar to conditions mem coded

• 3 ways, Context -dep, Moo Congre, State Sequence- items a list
• serial - position

Forgetting : Ebbinghaus Nonsense study with recall task

forgetting

information for REASONs Active Fail temp. In ACC

Why things things - decay-

• infade-uninfluence
• inter-fereence

Retro

Info

List w last is repeat" can recall# is read better Depends # item in probes it

Problem

Source

source confusion

The sleeper effet

• info come an. Un source- later believe it Both discount only after it's forget

Missinformation Effect

Constantly being updated

Study : cars/ hit vs smashed Fasters say they were going fast

Remember is was fast and see broke grass- test

Falsr

Elicta mem interviewed descirbe events/ list event then write details Day is ask 4 then was was false : some said was true to them Kid- they believe ever was true

REPRES

Belief

Examples

The Flash Bulb

How learns of shcoking event/ mem source in Info like: Visid Detailsd Long lasting Memories" never

TEST

Did ask

Memory Loss

Neurical Retro- Can't access in past/ and around

Antero

No new HM"

Stage of Lecar

Develoopsy = physic- cog= soc change to span

Central. Q

What natur devel?

• Quantitative: = grad
• qualitati = emerge behavior

###. sources

Natuee.s nurture all the chmages

Pastacity can cours change deliberate or accident sensitive +

period

Critical one form if doesn't have will have

Sensitive period- can learn early on and not again but easier

French before 10

###. INdividual Differ Why's e everyone different

ACTIVE

kids. contribute vs observe

Research

• cross sec Fast - do alt. Sim But not cohort -affect other Long: long all tested Id traits BUT TIME AND TRIS Attrition drop out - all type of reasons PRact affect Cross- gen changes

Prenantal DEV

mAUTER OVUM MEETS SPERM ZYOGTE

PRENETAL DEF

all qualitative Diff

3 period

• Germinat
• EMBRYONC
• FETAL

GER: IMPLANTATION BY WEEK 1/2 About 36 hours after begins to decide- cleavage is

Embry

Major Oran all form- 3to8

• Known an emb Imp term since all system dev Harm= organ DONT form

By 2 monts mark know pregnant

FEtal

9 till week now

Teratogens

Things hram

Examples

Disesss and

• same effects same effect

Diff

Impterrogens at can DO DAMAGE/ germinal misscarriage if damage

But in 3rd/ then structural defect Image:

Dev

Brains

• Synapseis - Form Synapse all the can comit
• Synapses=form it grwe+ the syna grows more Rapid growth=1st feal months
• Mylin Sheeth + auto comes then asso

rapid dev -

Hrad. down / up Outaide down = prox

brain enabl better enmesgred with alls

adolescence

Puberty then adult h

Bigger long ter econ wonte more Associate indephodsnces Increased sex

hormones

Pubery stimul glands/ s sex

Primarty direct with ha

Scondary- not repprdoc but hair Main is puberty met/ in women product sperm= men Women quicker all Also dep on ex, diet ext

Sensor abilities decline

Peak is young ah maps for accid people

Life Span

12 years of

cell clock to die

• Weater weat

Life Expectancy-

Ave lives increased medical women than men and induaitalie nations

• Piages = cogni/all Skekmas .framework Basic all intellect

Scheme

• assimilation the it- aRolex

Comit

Change 544 Schemas of earth changes Flat then see 688

They all

Explain cog

4 stages cognitive:

Sensor- Motor / pre operative/ Con + Formal stages Motor exploress obj pernaent 2.

Pre operative

Symbol not logical .egot 2

C

Logically but not abstract 5

FORMAL

Abstract+ hypoth All are approex

But are on t consistent at all

depends culture

####. Obert Premavemce Awareness of things stay

Testing

Show and hide the test/ and motor it Proved if skill reach 3

Pre- operative

More action but 2 younge can't make imagin+ reverse

Algo

Can't take perspective . Mt view : cant see pov

Theory.Minds

UNDER other Minds and how are diff TESTINNG with picture Sal ball test

Test show children know less what people belkue

What test wht and did diff Also smart vs

Show what know

STAGE Opertions/ they re remain But not hysothical Just logic Distribute right or not

Formal

12 and up cconsitently w But what if+ hypoth The all reach a consitcluy not everyone

OLD

P focus util /assume all reason the same

NO ALL

Decline memory- the neural stop

There is

• Intilliec decrease the L but intteliogeance increase = in live =the the type THE CHART AND

Social -

Erick always that are are: all depends and and all

Res. Does help determ the person has The all et on the all the stage fo someone All those the and

CHART

• *All almos Imp science/emp
• **Cross culture some have

CHART

Is: All Style/ indv and resp : how

Them perment

Imate the best a the list: Easy:

40

Happy

2

CONFORM

HOw along W st something changes with the age group Is they

Indv

All sezs then in age they hang

CHART

• ALL CHART TH

BUT ALI. EXAGERET

LIfe and those SELF

THE END