Lazarus and Appraisal

• Exam 1 is in person on Monday, March 10 at 7:00 PM ET.
• The exam will consist of 40-50 questions
• The question types are: True/False, Multiple Choice, and Short Answer.

Lazarus and Appraisal

• Appraisal refers to the process by which individuals evaluate or interpret a situation to determine its significance for their well-being.
• Richard Lazarus introduced the concept of appraisal in his Cognitive-Motivational-Relational Theory of Emotion and is central to his Transactional Model of Stress and Coping (Lazarus & Folkman, 1984).
• The two main types of appraisal: primary and secondary

Primary Appraisal

• Involves evaluating whether a situation is irrelevant, benign-positive, or stressful.
• If perceived as stressful, individuals determine if it is a threat (potential future harm), harm/loss (damage already done), or a challenge (opportunity for growth or mastery).

Secondary Appraisal

• Assesses available coping resources and options for dealing with the stressor.

• Individuals consider their ability to manage or control the situation and effective strategies.

• Appraisal is subjective, influenced by personal factors like past experiences, personality, and available social support.

• Appraisal is dynamic, changing as a situation unfolds and as coping efforts are applied.

Psychological vs. Physiological Stress

• Psychological stress occurs when an individual perceives environmental demands exceed their personal resources, posing a threat to well-being.

• It is a transactional process where stress arises from how an individual appraises the situation.

• Physiological stress refers to the body's biological response to a stressor, including activation of the autonomic nervous system and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis.

• HPA activation leads to increased heart rate, cortisol release, and other bodily reactions.

• Earlier physiological models were critiqued for not accounting for the role of cognitive and emotional interpretation in stress.

• Physiological stress involves bodily responses; psychological stress involves cognitive evaluation of a situation.

Four Critical Concepts for Describing Stress

• A causal external or internal agent, or load/stressor.
• An evaluation by the mind or physiological system distinguishing what is threatening or noxious from what is benign.
• Coping processes used by the mind or body to deal with stressful demands.
• A complex pattern of effects on the mind and body, often referred to as the stress reaction.

Problem-Focused Coping

• Occurs when a person actively changes their environment through coping actions to improve conditions of psychological stress.
• Persuading a neighbor to prevent their tree from dropping leaves to eliminate the leaf drop source of threat.

Emotion-Focused Coping

• Occurs when a person modifies their attention to or interpretation of a situation, rather than changing the external environment.
• Reappraising a threat in nonthreatening terms removes the cognitive basis of the stress reaction.

Allostasis and Allostatic Load

• Allostasis is the process by which the body achieves stability through change in response to environmental demands.
• It is the body's ability to adapt to stress and maintain homeostasis through dynamic changes in physiological systems.
• Allostatic load refers to the consequences of sustained activation of primary regulatory systems serving allostasis over time.
• This can cause wear and tear on bodily systems, potentially contributing to disorder and disease.
• Allostasis involves biological mechanisms that adjust to perceived threats or challenges, such as the activation of the autonomic nervous system and the HPA axis.
• Maintaining allostasis is essential for survival, but overactivation or improper regulation can lead to negative health outcomes.

Cognitive Appraisal of Stress

• Cognitive appraisal is the process by which an individual evaluates whether an event is threatening and whether they have the resources to cope with it.
• Primary appraisal assesses whether the situation is harmful, threatening, or benign.
• Secondary appraisal evaluates coping resources available to deal with the situation.

Life Events vs. Chronic Stress

• Life events are acute stressors, such as a death or job loss.
• Chronic stress refers to ongoing stressors, such as poverty or long-term caregiving.
• Life events often cause short-term stress, but their long-term effects rely on how they are appraised.
• Chronic stress tends to be more detrimental to health due to its ongoing nature and the accumulation of stress over time.
• Job loss could be followed by a prolonged period of financial insecurity, which together could have long-term effects on mental and physical health.

Impact of Life Events on Mental Health

• Life events, especially major life stressors, are linked to mental health issues like depression or anxiety.
• Timing, severity, and appraisal of the event affect the mental health outcome.
• Individuals who perceive life events as more threatening are more likely to experience negative emotional consequences.

Social Support as a Buffer

• Social support refers to the assistance or comfort provided by others, which can reduce the impact of stress.
• Perceived social support is often more helpful than actual support because it provides a sense of security.
• Social support offers emotional, informational, or material resources to cope with stress.

Activation of the Sympathetic Nervous System

• The SNS is part of the autonomic nervous system (ANS).
• The SNS is responsible for the body's fight-or-flight response.
• The SNS activates in response to perceived threats or stressors, preparing the body for action.
• The brain (amygdala and hypothalamus) detects a threat.
• The hypothalamus activates the SNS, sending signals through the spinal cord.
• Adrenal glands release epinephrine (adrenaline) and norepinephrine, which circulate through the bloodstream.
• SNS activation helps individuals react quickly to stressors short-term.
• Prolonged SNS activation can lead to hypertension, anxiety, and immune suppression, which has a chronic effect.

Physiological Effects of SNS Activation

• Increased heart rate and blood pressure, which helps send more oxygenated blood to muscles.
• Dilated pupils improve vision for better threat detection.
• Increased breathing rate, which provides more oxygen intake for energy.
• Glucose is released for immediate energy.
• Digestion and immune function is suppressed, allowing resources to shift toward survival needs.

Coping Strategies for SNS Activation

• Relaxation techniques activate the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) to counteract SNS effects.
• Exercise helps regulate SNS activation and stress hormone levels.
• Cognitive reappraisal can reduce perceived stress and SNS overactivation.

Major Stress Hormones

• Cortisol: Released from the adrenal cortex; increases glucose for energy, suppresses immune function, and regulates metabolism.
• Epinephrine (Adrenaline): Released from the adrenal medulla; increases heart rate, blood pressure, and energy availability for immediate action.
• Norepinephrine: Released from the adrenal medulla and brain; enhances alertness, focus, and prepares body for fight-or-flight response.
• ACTH (Adrenocorticotropic Hormone): Released from the pituitary gland and stimulates the adrenal glands to release cortisol.

Cardiovascular Functions of the Stress Response

• The cardiovascular system ensures oxygen and energy reach vital organs and muscles during stress.
• Stress triggers activation of the sympathetic nervous system (SNS) and hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal (HPA) axis, leading to physiological changes that prepare the body for fight-or-flight.

Neurobiological Mechanisms of Cardiovascular Activation via the SAM System

• Perception of stress occurs when the amygdala signals the hypothalamus, which activates the SNS.
• Epinephrine and norepinephrine are released by the adrenal medulla. These will bind to adrenergic receptors in the heart and blood vessels.
• Heart rate (tachycardia) and stroke volume increases, leading to increases in cardiac output to pump more blood and greater circulation.
• Blood vessels in non-essential areas constrict, while blood vessels that supply muscles, brain, and heart dilate, which increases oxygen delivery.

Health Consequences of Chronic Cardiovascular Stress

• Hypertension causes an increased strain on the heart and arteries.
• Atherosclerosis increases the risk of heart attack and stroke.
• Cardiac Hypertrophy leading to heart failure.
• Increased Risk of Metabolic Syndrome leads to obesity, diabetes, and cardiovascular disease.

Neurobiological Mechanisms of Cardiovascular Activation via Cortisol Release

• Provides sustained energy via increases in blood glucose levels

• Prolonging cardiovascular effects by enhancing the sensitivity of blood vessels to epinephrine and norepinephrine

• Acute, short term stress is Adaptive: Improves performance, quick reaction to danger

• Chronic, long term stress is Maladaptive: Risk of hypertension, heart disease, stroke

Coping Strategies to Protect Cardiovascular Health

• Relaxation Techniques activate the parasympathetic nervous system (PNS) to lower heart rate and blood pressure.
• Regular Exercise strengthens heart function and lowers stress hormones.
• Healthy Diet reduces inflammation and maintains blood pressure.
• Social Support & Positive Coping reduces stress hormones and improves heart rate variability.

Insulin's Role in Stress Response

• Insulin is produced by the pancreas to help transport glucose into cells for energy.
• Acute stress suppresses insulin secretion to keep glucose available in the bloodstream for quick use.
• Chronic stress causes repeated insulin suppression, contributing to insulin resistance.
• Resistance can cause excess blood glucose levels, which leads to an increased risk of type 2 diabetes and metabolic syndrome.

The Gut-Brain Connection and Stress

• A communication network links the brain and the gut through the gut-brain axis.
• The nervous system controls digestion.
• The sympathetic nervous system slows digestion.
• The parasympathetic nervous system helps digestion.

Gut Microbiota

• Trillions of bacteria help digest food and produce molecules.
• These microbes produce neurotransmitters to regulate mood and influence inflammation to impact conditions like IBS and IBD.
• These also communicate with the brain via the vagus nerve.

What Happens When Stressed

• Increased Stomach Acid results in heartburn and acid reflux.
• Slowed or Sped Up Digestion results in constipation or diarrhea
• Inflammation results in worsened gut disorders like IBS disease
• Changes in Gut Bacteria can affect mood and digestion

Short-term Stress Effects

• Body prioritizes survival over digestion.
• Common results are nausea, stomach pain, and temporary diarrhea or constipation.

Chronic Stress Effects

• Constant activation of the HPA axis disrupts gut function.
• Long-term effects can be an imbalance in gut bacteria, increased gut inflammation, and a higher risk of GI disorders.

Low-FODMAP Diet

• This diet reduces certain types of fermentable carbohydrates to help manage digestive disorders, especially Irritable Bowel Syndrome (IBS).
• FODMAPs are short-chain carbohydrates that are poorly absorbed in the small intestine and can cause bloating, gas, diarrhea, and stomach pain.
• FODMAP stands for: Fermentable, Oligosaccharides, Disaccharides, Monosaccharides And Polyols

Autoimmune Disorders

• Rheumatoid Arthritis (RA): Targets joint tissue. The symptoms are joint pain, swelling, stiffness and complications like joint deformity and CV issues. DMARDs treatment
• Multiple Sclerosis (MS): Targets myelin sheath of nerve cells. The symptoms are vision and muscle problems as well as complications like depression. Treatment is symptom management
• Type 1 Diabetes: Targets insulin-producing pancreatic cells. The symptoms are thirst, urination issues, complications such as nerve damage occurs. Treatment is insulin therapy
• Systemic Lupus Erythematosus (SLE): Targets multiple organs and tissues. The symptoms are fever and joint pain, as well as kidney damage. Treatment is anti-inflammatory drugs