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Which variety of English is endorsed by the Singapore government for schools and official communications?
Which variety of English is endorsed by the Singapore government for schools and official communications?
What does the term 'lingua franca' refer to?
What does the term 'lingua franca' refer to?
A language serving as a regular means of communication between different linguistic groups in a multilingual speech community.
Latin was used by Sister Dominic and the priest as a lingua franca in Rome.
Latin was used by Sister Dominic and the priest as a lingua franca in Rome.
True
What is the primary lingua franca used by the Indian community along the Vaupés river?
What is the primary lingua franca used by the Indian community along the Vaupés river?
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In which country is Swahili used as a lingua franca?
In which country is Swahili used as a lingua franca?
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A pidgin is a language that has no __________ speakers.
A pidgin is a language that has no __________ speakers.
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What was the original purpose of pidgin languages?
What was the original purpose of pidgin languages?
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Tok Pisin is considered a pidgin language.
Tok Pisin is considered a pidgin language.
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What factor can contribute to the survival of local vernaculars in multilingual communities?
What factor can contribute to the survival of local vernaculars in multilingual communities?
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Pidgin languages tend to have a __________ structure compared to fully developed languages.
Pidgin languages tend to have a __________ structure compared to fully developed languages.
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What is the lexifier language for Tok Pisin?
What is the lexifier language for Tok Pisin?
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What is the term used to refer to a language which has not been standardized and does not have official status?
What is the term used to refer to a language which has not been standardized and does not have official status?
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Which of the following languages used by Mr. Patel is considered a vernacular language?
Which of the following languages used by Mr. Patel is considered a vernacular language?
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Spanish is considered a vernacular language in Spain.
Spanish is considered a vernacular language in Spain.
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What are the three components used to define a vernacular language?
What are the three components used to define a vernacular language?
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What is the definition of a standard language?
What is the definition of a standard language?
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What dialect served as the basis for what is now considered standard British English?
What dialect served as the basis for what is now considered standard British English?
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Which of these languages is an example of a pidgin?
Which of these languages is an example of a pidgin?
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What term describes the varieties of English developed in multilingual countries influenced by British colonialism?
What term describes the varieties of English developed in multilingual countries influenced by British colonialism?
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Standard English has served primarily as a means of communication within areas of dialect diversity.
Standard English has served primarily as a means of communication within areas of dialect diversity.
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What is a creole?
What is a creole?
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Which language was used by the Catholic Church for services, instead of vernacular languages?
Which language was used by the Catholic Church for services, instead of vernacular languages?
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Pidgin languages typically maintain complex grammatical structures.
Pidgin languages typically maintain complex grammatical structures.
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What does 'baksait' mean in Tok Pisin?
What does 'baksait' mean in Tok Pisin?
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In Tok Pisin, the word for 'hand' is ______.
In Tok Pisin, the word for 'hand' is ______.
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What is the average vocabulary of a monolingual English-speaking adult?
What is the average vocabulary of a monolingual English-speaking adult?
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Which of the following is not a characteristic of pidgin languages?
Which of the following is not a characteristic of pidgin languages?
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A common feature of pidgin languages is ______, which refers to words having multiple meanings.
A common feature of pidgin languages is ______, which refers to words having multiple meanings.
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Pidgin languages tend to have high status and prestige.
Pidgin languages tend to have high status and prestige.
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Which of the following describes Tok Pisin's development?
Which of the following describes Tok Pisin's development?
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Match the following Tok Pisin words with their English meanings:
Match the following Tok Pisin words with their English meanings:
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What language alongside prestigious French is spoken in Haiti?
What language alongside prestigious French is spoken in Haiti?
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All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
All human beings are born free and equal in dignity and rights.
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What is the term used for languages that arise in contexts such as trade and barter?
What is the term used for languages that arise in contexts such as trade and barter?
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What are the terms describing the varieties of a language from closest to farthest from the standard?
What are the terms describing the varieties of a language from closest to farthest from the standard?
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Which language is cited as an example of a lexifier language?
Which language is cited as an example of a lexifier language?
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What process describes the development of a creole towards a standard language?
What process describes the development of a creole towards a standard language?
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In a diglossic situation like Haiti, Haitian Creole is the L variety while _____ is the H variety.
In a diglossic situation like Haiti, Haitian Creole is the L variety while _____ is the H variety.
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Vernacular languages have a high status in formal situations.
Vernacular languages have a high status in formal situations.
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What are the two types of constraints that pidgins share in their development?
What are the two types of constraints that pidgins share in their development?
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Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a lexifier language?
Which of the following is NOT mentioned as a lexifier language?
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Study Notes
Linguistic Varieties and Multilingual Nations
- Over half the world's population is bilingual, with many people being multilingual, acquiring languages for diverse purposes in their daily interactions.
- Sociolinguistics categorizes languages based on their status and social functions, distinguishing between vernacular languages and standard languages.
Vernacular Languages
- Vernacular refers to languages that are not standardized and lack official status, often representing the first language learned by individuals in multilingual communities, serving informal functions.
- Examples of vernacular languages include Buang in Papua New Guinea, Hindustani in India, and Bumbar in Vanuatu.
- Vernacular languages are frequently used in homes, with close friends, and within a specific ethnic group.
- The meaning of "vernacular" can extend to encompass any language that isn't the official language of a country, for example, Spanish as the dominant language in the USA.
- The term "vernacularisation" describes the process of developing a language for use as the national language, like the evolution of Hebrew from a ritual language to a language of everyday communication.
Standard Languages
- A standard variety is a written language that has undergone regularisation and codification, recognized as prestigious and used for formal purposes alongside informal varieties.
- Standard English emerged from regional English dialects in the 15th century due to its use by the English court and influential merchants of London.
- The dialect used in London and its surrounding areas became the foundation of standard English, gaining prestige through its use by the court and influence from the powerful merchant class.
- Codification of standard languages typically involves the development of grammars and dictionaries that record and prescribe the standard forms of the language.
- The introduction of printing in 1476 accelerated the codification of standard English, with William Caxton employing the emerging London dialect for translations.
- Standard languages generally lack linguistic merits, but gain prominence due to social, economic, and political influences.
World Englishes
- The term "World Englishes" encompasses the diverse varieties of English that have developed since the 19th century, particularly in countries with British colonial influence.
- Distinctive linguistic traits, reflecting local influences, have emerged in specific regions, including Malaysia, Singapore, Hong Kong, India, and numerous African nations.
- Singapore English exhibits distinct varieties like formal Singapore English for global communication and "Singlish" for informal, colloquial use, often reflecting local aspirations and identities.
- "Singlish" features distinctive intonation patterns, grammar, vocabulary, and the inclusion of phrases from local languages.
- Indian English also displays unique characteristics like a distinctive stress pattern, the "kya" tag, and words borrowed from local languages.
- The concept of inner, outer, and expanding circles of English, proposed by Braj Kachru, categorizes varieties based on the primary language of speakers.
- Inner-circle languages, like those in Australia and New Zealand, primarily use English as their first language.
- Outer-circle languages, like those in India and Singapore, use English alongside other languages, although English might be the first language for some individuals.
- Expanding-circle languages, like those in China and Japan, use English as a foreign language, primarily for international communication or academic purposes.
Lingua Francas
- A lingua franca is a language used for communication between different language groups, particularly in multilingual contexts.
- The term "lingua franca" often refers to a language that is not native to any of the participating groups.
- The use of Latin as a lingua franca within the Catholic church, especially for services and academic purposes, illustrates its function as a language of broader communication.
Lingua Franca
- A language used for communication between people speaking different languages
- Used for specific situations - e.g., in meetings or conferences, between different ethnic groups, in trade
- May become the language of a home if parents from different ethnic groups use it
- Can be an official or national language of a country
- Often chosen for functionality and widespread use
Pidgin Languages
- Have no native speakers
- Used by people with different languages who need a common language for communication
- Typically arise when two or more language groups are interacting and a third dominant language is present
- Used in restricted domains with limited function
- Often have a simplified structure compared to other languages - e.g., fewer vowels, simpler consonant clusters, lack of affixes
- Smaller vocabulary than fully developed languages - e.g., 20,000 words in English vs. a few hundred in a trade pidgin
- Have low prestige and are often viewed negatively by those who don't speak them
- Can be seen as "baby talk" or a debased form of European languages, but they are real languages with distinct grammatical structures
- Many are used in trade and can be used for serious purposes
Creoles
- Languages that develop from pidgins and become native languages of a community
- More complex structures and larger vocabularies than pidgins
- Used for all functions, not just for specific purposes
Examples of Lingua Francas
- Latin - used as a language of communication between a nun and a priest in Italian
- English - used in a meeting of nuns from various countries
- English, French, Spanish - used by academics and politicians at international meetings
- Tukano - used in the Vaupés area of the Amazon to communicate between different Indian groups
- Swahili - used in Tanzania to communicate between people from different tribal groups
- Tok Pisin - used in Papua New Guinea to communicate between different language groups
- Russian - used in the former Soviet Union as a national and official language and lingua franca
- Classical Arabic - used in the Arabic-speaking world as a lingua franca among the educated
- Languages of former colonial powers - used as lingua francas in multilingual communities
Examples of Pidgins
- Juba Arabic - spoken in the southern Sudan
- Bislama - spoken in Vanuatu, originated on sugar cane plantations
- Tok Pisin - spoken in Papua New Guinea, originally used for trade
The Development of Pidgins
- Often develop as trade languages
- Can disappear when the role of the language changes - e.g., if trade ends
- Example: Pidgin English in Vietnam used between American troops and Vietnamese during war, but died out after the war
Pidgin Languages
- Pidgins are simplified languages that develop when speakers of two or more languages need to communicate.
- Oftentimes Pidgins use the lexicon of a dominant language, known as the Lexifier language, but have unique grammatical rules.
- Example Tok Pisin, a pidgin from Papua New Guinea, uses English as the lexifier language.
- Pidgins are typically used in specific contexts, like trade or commerce, and are not generally spoken at home.
Creoles
- Creoles are pidgins that have evolved into full languages.
- Creoles become first languages for speakers, are used in diverse contexts, and have more complex grammatical rules than pidgins.
- Example Tok Pisin is now a creole, as it is learned as a first language by many in Papua New Guinea.
- Creoles often reflect the influence of substrate languages, which are local languages that the pidgin came in contact with.
Structural Features of Creoles
- Creoles develop systematic ways to signal grammatical features like verb tenses.
- Example Roper River Creole marks the past tense using the particle "bin".
- The substrate influence on Tok Pisin is evident in its use of inclusive and exclusive plural pronouns (yumi and mipela) which derive from Oceanic languages, not the lexifier language English.
- The structure of creole languages is often more regular and predictable than the languages they derive from.
Functions of Creoles
- Creoles serve all the functions of any language, including use in politics, education, administration, literature, and everyday life.
- Many creoles developed from the languages of plantation slaves in the Americas and the Caribbean.
Origins of Pidgins and Creoles
- The origins of pidgins and creoles are a subject of debate.
- One theory suggests that all pidgins and creoles have a common origin, possibly a fifteenth-century Portuguese pidgin or a Mediterranean lingua franca called Sabir.
- Another theory states that pidgins arise independently and share similarities due to common functions and universal language development processes, like simplification and reduction of features.
Decriolisation
- Decriolisation is a process where features of a creole language shift towards the standard language from which it was derived.
- Example In Guyana, the Guyanese Creole has an acrolect, mesolect, and basilect representing different levels of variation toward the standard language.
- Some creoles may be engulfed by the standard language over time, while others may gain official recognition and become standardized languages.
- Example Indonesian is a creole language that evolved from pidgin Malay and became an official language.
Social Dimensions of Pidgins and Creoles
- Vernacular (a) - A local, unstandardized language used by a particular social group, often tied to a specific region or ethnicity.
- Standard (b) - Formally recognized and codified language used in official contexts.
- Lingua Franca (c) - A language used for communication between speakers who do not share a common language, often used in domains like commerce or trade.
- Pidgin (d) - A simplified language used for basic communication between speakers of different languages.
- Creole (e) - A pidgin that has developed into a full language.
Standard
- A standard is an accepted or approved example of a linguistic variety
- Standards are used to judge other linguistic varieties or measure them
- Sociolinguists emphasize the social and non-linguistic factors that contribute to the emergence of a particular linguistic variety
- Linguistic considerations are rarely important
- Linguists may be involved in the codification of a standard, their recommendations are generally guided by cultural and social factors
- Prestige and usage influence the selection of a standard over intrinsic linguistic features
English Varieties
- Distinctions between inner, outer, and expanding circles are difficult to maintain using the criterion of native vs. non-native speakers
- Inner circle: native-like proficiency, whether native speakers or not
- Outer circle: decreasing levels of proficiency, usually reflecting a more limited range of functions and less frequent use
- Expanding circle: decreasing levels of proficiency, usually reflecting a more limited range of functions and less frequent use
- Another approach considers the range of functions English serves
- Inner circle: all functions
- Outer and expanding circles: more limited range of functions
Vernacular Languages
- Vernacular languages contrast with standardized varieties on the status and formality dimensions
- Vernaculars are low-status varieties used to express solidarity or construct aspects of social identity in informal contexts
- Standard dialects are prestigious varieties which may be used in more formal situations
Lingua Francas and Pidgins
- Lingua francas and pidgin languages can be described in terms of their functions
- Function: facilitate communication across language barriers
- Associated with informal contexts but information-oriented
- Pidgins and creoles are generally considered low-status linguistic varieties
- Steps can be taken to raise the status of creoles
Lexifier Languages and Substrate
- Lexifier Language: language that provides the majority of the vocabulary for a pidgin or creole
- Substrate Languages: language that influences the grammar of a pidgin or creole
Creole Languages
- Creoles are languages that have evolved from pidgins
- They become more complex over time
Creolisation
- Process that occurs when a pidgin language becomes nativized
- The pidgin acquires native speakers who use it as their first language
- Pidgin languages become creoles through creolisation
Acrolect, Basilect, and Mesolect
- Acrolect: language that is closer to the lexifier language (e.g. Standard English)
- Basilect: language that is further from the lexifier language (e.g. non-standard varieties)
- Mesolect: language that falls between the acrolect and basilect
Decreolisation
- Language change that occurs when a creole becomes more similar to the lexifier language
- Decreolisation is most unlikely in a situation where the lexifier language is not in regular use in the community
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Test your knowledge on lingua francas and pidgin languages with this quiz. Explore questions related to the varieties of English endorsed by governments, the role of pidgins, and the languages used in multilingual communities. See how much you know about the concepts that shape communication across cultures.
