Language: Structure, Social Rules & Development

Language Overview

• Language involves communication using structural and social rules.
• Structural and social rules are used to govern communication
• Environmental and Biological factors support language development.
• Broca's and Wernicke's Aphasias affect language abilities.
• Bilingualism involves learning two languages.
• Animal language raises questions about the uniqueness of human language.

Structural & Social Rules of Language

• Language enables communication with people within a specific culture.
• Language combines symbols like sounds or gestures to form meaningful structured utterances.
• Phonemes are the smallest sound units in a language, "bit" has 3 phonemes; "i" and "t" are each 1.
• Morphemes represent the smallest units of meaning in a language.
• Morphemes include words and modifiers; "bit" and "I" represent 1 morpheme, "re-" is 1 (prefix), and "est" indicates 1 (suffix).
• The Lexicon is a list of words and acceptable structures for a specific language.
• Syntax involves the structural rules that determine the proper order of words.
• Semantics relate to the literal meaning of words and phrases.
• Pragmatics relate to the social context and style of communication.
• Social contexts are the common ground / understanding between people, such as how the phrase "I nailed it" means the test was passed.
• Audience design is an important aspect of Pragmatics, determining sharing of info for friends vs strangers (Adults communicating with Children).
• Style involves manner and meaning and includes different uses such as request, demand, and informing.
• Rules involve taking turns, staying on topic, and maintaining a verbal pace.

Environmental Role in Language

• Language deprivation shows minimal human communication significantly impairs language development.
• Genie, a victim of extreme neglect and mistreatment, experienced minimal human interaction until age 13.
• Genie learned many words but could not understand grammar or language structure, and could not generate typically structured English phrases.
• Basic Language exposure is Necessary.
• Infants and children observe and imitate adult language and learn specific language characteristics (syntactical structures) from languages like English, Spanish, and German.
• Reinforcement can help with language which Adults do not consistently correct children (Generativity).
• Children not exposed to adult language have invented their own languages like Deaf Children's Sign Language
• Similar linguistic development occurs across various cultures.

Biological Support for Language

• Noam Chomsky argues that humans are biologically pre-wired to learn language at a certain time and in a certain way.
• Language Acquisition Device (LAD) involves an innate biological mechanism containing universal grammar.
• The LAD involves noun phrases and verb phrases in specific arrangements.
• Language-Specific sequencing rules come from early life exposure, like pronoun before verb in English but not Spanish.
• While the LAD language model is not fully supported, sensitive periods exist where younger individuals experience more rapid language learning.
• A combination of both Bio and Enviro factors is the Emergentist perspective.
• Biological characteristics allows language development and imposes developmental constraints (timing).
• Environmental characteristics facilitate specialized language (specific language learned) and account for individual differences among same language speakers.

Brain Structures

• Broca's Area handles Speaking within the left-brain network.
• Wernicke's Area handles organization and understanding within the left-brain network.
• Central Linguistic Processes handles left-brain networks.
• Perisylvian regions, middle temporal gyrus, & ventral temporo-occipital regions are optional components to these systems

Broca's Aphasia

• Paul Broca identified the area in 1861.
• Damage to the Inferior/posterior Frontal Lobe, including the motor cortex for speech muscles, impairs verbal articulation.
• Spoken Expression is impaired in words and sentences.
• Simple spoken Comprehension sentences are fine.
• Complex spoken sentences are problematic.
• Written Comprehension / Reading is generally good.
• Written Expression is affected.
• Motor Cortex - handwriting / typing is generally OK.

Wernicke's Aphasia

• Carl Wernicke identified the condition in 1874.
• Damage to the Posterior - Superior Temporal lobe causes deficits.
• Speech Organization deficits feature a good flow of words.
• Phrases and sentences well-structured and carry the right swings in pitch.
• Neural networks controlling syntax and intonation are fine.
• Content lacks meaning of speech that is often rambling.
• Deficits impair awareness of nonsensical speech.
• Most patients exhibit significant listening deficits.

Bilingualism

• Bilingualism enhances cognitive flexibility, cognitive functioning, and analytic skills.
• Dr. Patricia Kuhl suggests neuroplasticity enables infant language learning where neural potential declines with ease of learning
• Human - Social Communication is critical with talking to babies to provide, information and Motivation.
• Real people engage in + Social + Motor movements (preparing babies to respond).
• Live People / Infants interacting gates learning to create motivation + info.
• 37-Principle Bilingual training: 32 weeks, 1 hr/day.
• Waltz Music increases pattern prediction which enhances pattern prediction etc
• Parent Coaching of the Motherese language enhances a childs development.

Chimpanzee Communication

• Dr. Catherine Hobaiter observed Chimpanzee (Ape) language in their natural habitat.
• Observation included years of Naturalistic Observation of the African Forest to show
• Thousands of Gestural Exchanges conveying specific messages or "lexicon" of gestures.
• Chimpanzees are the only non-human species engaged in meaningful that is intentional communication.
• Other apes/monkeys understand complex information from an animal's call but the calls are not intentional.
• Intentional Communication involves a degree of T.O.M., turn-taking, & a goal to alter the Other's understanding / actions.
• Non-Intentional:"You pick up a hot cup of coffee and scream and blow on your fingers," Others now know coffee is hot, but there was no necessary intent.
• Intentional: Gesturing how to ensure that an Other understands a cup is hot.
• "Groom me here please" is communicated by Offering a particular part of the body to another.
• "Flirt with me" includes a Chimpanzee Tearing strips from leaves with the teeth.
• "Climb onto my back" is communicated by Showing the sole of the foot to another.

Cognition and Thinking

• Cognition occurs with information is processed, organized, stored, communicated, or evaluated.
• Cognition involves the past, present, or future, and encompasses real or imagined events.
• Cognition involves external & internal stimulation.
• Cognition relies on processing speed and memory capacity as well as attention, and learning in order to support the application of acquired knowledge.
• Strategies are developed and used by forming planning, and Meta-cognition is used for self-awareness.

Reasoning / Problem Solving

• Reasoning – drawing conclusions or inferences from observations, assumptions, and facts.
• Problem Solving: Specific attempt to find an appropriate way (strategy) of goal attainment.

Formal Algorithmic Reasoning

• Formal Algorithmic Reasoning is a problem-solving strategy guaranteed to produce a solution through a systematic method.
• Deductive Reasoning uses valid logic with true premises.
• Math rules use Parentheses, Exponents, Multiplication/Division, & Addition/Subtraction (PEMDAS).
• Trial & Error uses combination locks.
• Follow the Method - Yes / No Questioning for processes like cake recipes.

Informal Reasoning

• Informal Reasoning is a diverse set of problem-solving approaches whereas
• A complete available info is required for Systematic Formal Reasoning.
• A one correct response or correctability is not required.
• Heuristics mental short-cuts reduce problem solving into simpler processes.

Heuristic Rule-of-Thumb

• Heuristics follow an approach that you believe often works for a given type of problem.
• Actions have different likelihoods of success.
• To help an upset individual requires listening and asking questions, and helping the Upset Friend find Professional help.

Sub Goal Analysis Heuristic

• Manageable tasks are required to solve a Complex task
• Tasks use Scaffolding where Experts engage subgoals.

Decisions of Solutions

• Availability of relevant data readily comes to mind.
• Data is found as represented in the degree to which a specific thing is similar to your prototypical mental representation of that thing category.
• Base-Rates are often unknown or ignored.

Thinking Short Cuts

• Thin Slicing uses a brief observation or 1st impression that determines greatly influences long-term judgement.
• This is primarily based upon Automaticity.
• Priming is caused by a subtle cue that automatically activates triggers automatic thoughts or behaviours.
• Automaticity can occur due to Inborn reactions or Learned processes.
• Implicitly: Repeated Exposure &/or Repeated Pairings are used, and Classical Conditioning is used.
• Initially Explicit: Intentional training of thoughts/moves requires intentional effort.
• Automaticity is responsible the Interesting Behaviour shown as the Chameleon Effect (Interpersonal Mimicry).
• Decisions rely on Need for Closure -> quickly deciding non-optimal decision.
• Considerations include Time Constraints and Discomfort with Uncertainty.

Thinking Limitations

• Affective Bias: Moods / feelings guide your decisions.
• Biases, Schemas, and Stereotypes may override logical evaluations or objective evidence.
• Mental Set: Novel problems can't be solve following standards.
• Functional Fixedness: Fixed views hinder abilities
• Confirmation Bias: Info that confirms belief creates bias and leads an selective process that is consistent with existing beliefs.
• Hindsight Bias: Overestimating in predicting an outcome when it has become knowledge which creates Pscy comfort that can prevent failure to learn lessons and avoid them

Interpretive Limitations

• Cognitive Dissonance can create tension where there are competing belief systems.
• Initiation Rites and Hazing are one of the most common manifestations of this effect.

Decision Making

• The Dual Process system supports System 1 and 2
• System 1: Automatic Response system that is emotional can lead to errors.
• If defaults are Biased, Response -> Biased.
• If defaults are accurate, Responses will be Accurate.
• System 2: Effortful Response using Motivation that can override System 1.

Reasoning / Problem Solving - obstacles to success

• Cognitive reasoning can be limited by Perspective Taking, Motivation, and Emotion.

Scientic Method

• Deductive – general premises which makespredictions.
• Inductive – test predictions and creates data -> support support likely conclusion.
• Empirically data analysis is important.
• Must Reduce Bias that supports reliability and validity.
• Alternative Explanations remove atmospherics or noise.
• Test Generalizability by having groups and populations.