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Lakatos

• Imre Lakatos aimed to connect the history and philosophy of science, advocating for their collaboration
• He criticized historical accounts that only gather facts and philosophical approaches that pursue abstract reconstructions of scientific methods
• Lakatos placed rational reconstructions in a central role to bridge the gap

Rational Reconstructions

• Rational reconstruction illustrates how science logically, systematically, and consistently should ideally progress
• Inductivism, where observations build science, and Karl Popper's falsificationism, where theories grow by refuting attempts, are classical examples
• Reconstructions are not descriptive; they are normative and advocate for quality science
• Philosophers tend to present reconstructions as methodological norms, disconnected from science's actual historical progression
• Science historians often describe the actual messy procedures, including social, psychological and political elements
• Combining these approaches represents a core task

Theory and Practice Discrepancy

• A tension exists between scientists' "by the book" approach through rational reconstruction and their practical actions
• A good reconstruction can become a benchmark to assess scientific advancement, despite any reality deviations
• A comparison can be made to the usefulness of ideal gas laws in physics

Methodology as Reconstructive History

• Science history should be written as "methodologically oriented history"
• Rational reconstructions are employed to understand theory acceptance or rejection
• Multiple reconstructions can exist for one historical period
• Reconstructions get tested against historical facts to explain scientific behavior

Lakatos' Program

• Methodological falsificationism incorporates historical insights with Popper's falsification idea
• Theories get assessed inside research programs with a "hard core" and a protective belt of auxiliary hypotheses
• Progress happens via a rational process instead of immediately rejecting theories through falsification
• The progress can be progressive, meaning successful in predicting and explaining, or degenerative, that is explaining afterward

Dialogue Advocacy

• Lakatos advocated for integrating science's history and philosophy
• Rational reconstructions act as testable explanation models for scientific development
• Science theory should not be separate from history. Instead, it should critically reconstruct and evaluate it from a normative viewpoint

Internal Vs External Historiography

• Internal historiography describes science through the lens of rational reconstructions like logical steps, theories, and methodologies
• External historiography explains science using psychological, sociological, or political factors

Methodologies

• Inductivist methodology involves science advancing by gathering observations and deducing general laws
• Conventionalist methodology involves science maintaining scientific theories by using ad-hoc adjustments to counter evidence
• Falsificationist methodology involves theories that can make risky predictions, and get rejected if falsified

Kuhn Critique

• Lakatos considered Kuhn's paradigm shifts irrational and too dependent on social factors

Research Program

• Research programs are coherent sets of theories
• It is progressive if the new predictions are successful, and regressive if it only explains what's already known

Popper Criticism

• Falsification is a meta-criterion inside research programs
• Programs get compared regarding progression instead of assessing individual theories

Boon

• Technological instruments have a vital, yet frequently philosophically overlooked, function in scientific practice
• Technological instruments serve two functions: to develop and test scientific theories, they fulfill an epistemological function, and to produce relevant physical phenomena. -They fulfill a material function

Phenomenon-Oriented Perspective

• Boon advocates for a phenomenon-oriented perspective because of the traditional theory-oriented approach where science's material side previously received limited attention

Hooke's Law

• Hooke's law of elasticity and the discovery of super conduction in mercury illustrates this concept
• It’s important to not only understand phenomena; it’s also necessary to develop technology to reproduce and manipulate it
• Instrument development and phenomena understanding are therefore interconnected

Philosophy of Science

• A traditional positivist view sees science as focusing on actual theories where experiments simply provide data to confirm or deny them
• Experiments are theory-dependent and that observations get shaped by instruments and the theories used
• A new movement regarding philosophy of science emerged as a result, known as "New Experimentalism"

New Experimentalism

• Thinkers like Ian Hacking, Nancy Cartwright, and Allan Franklin focused on how experiments function
• Experiments produce phenomena and are not confined to simply testing theories even if these new phenomena lack theoretical explanation
• It's important to manipulate the world using instruments, since experiments "have a life of their own"

Underdetermination Topic

• Boon delves into how scientists address errors in experiments and underdetermination, which is when theories describe data; Deborah Mayo held errors as imperative for learning and amending while hypotheses undergo testing at different levels

Theory-Ladenness Topic

• Theory-ladenness is when instruments are constructed and interpreted in reliance with certain theories
• Hasok Chang showed that knowledge, theory, and instruments developed concurrently

Phenomenon-Oriented Perspective

• It is important to focus on how concepts become useful, and when they are most useful, rather than when they are "true"

Instrument Roles

• Instruments unearth new occurrences and enable to make possible
• Instruments have the ability to assist observation while actively contribute amid experiments

Science Technology Roles

• It is important to study technology. It is a knowledge practice when used as an integral component to produce scientific insights

Material Instruments

• Hooke's microscope brought cells into focus and originated to originate “cell visibility”

Theory & Phenomenon Orientation Comparison

• The former provides modeling explanation, while the approach concentrates to comprehend observed patterns in work

Positivist Scientific Theories

• Knowledge emerged through observation and logic like Carnap
• Devices are viewed neutral due to this, as active components

Underdetermination Duhem Quine Problem

• Cannot test a theory just from isolation, because results rely on other hypotheses, and this affect direct test

New Experimentalism

• Experimental practices are emphasized instead of objective viewpoints due to under determination

Replacing Common Attitudes

• Manipulations in the world replace impartial assessments. Theories and assessment are irrelevant

Inter v External Benchmark

• Standardized ways are the reasons behind research, with tech playing large roles

Theory's Life & Influence

• Quantum theory had a major impact when it came to being autonomus and abstract with chip tech

Measurements

• Combined methods are necessary to improve the robust/ strength

Intervention & Depiction

• Depiction describes and empirical information spreads through interventions

Laboratoty

• Proof through labs is useful for implementation

Cartwright's Machine

• Controlled mechanisms have the potential to reproduce connections, uniting abstractness, in real life

Classes of Instrumentation

• Instruments to asses data and new phenomenas

Casus thermometer

• Thermometers yield data from experiences while strengthening/ creating these values

Kitcher : Explanatory Unification

• Philip Kitcher critiqued the standard "covering law model" of scientific explanation, stating that it was narrow
• Kitcher thought the traditional covering law model was generous, because he thought they do not deepen our insight. Reverse of irrelevant information is permitted, and we would be in capable of knowing which explanation enhanced cognitive function

Kitcher Model

• Uni cation stems with reduction, and patterns are used on numerous appearances that offer individual notions
• Scientific theories give understanding on an underlying structure with small independent guesses

Model Illustration

• Issac Newton used it in theoretical and applied physics, and Darwin also added it to his work
• Darwin provided a new lens to biological assessments, linking past observations to modern information

Kitcher Idea

• The explanation store gets improved, after redone reasoning which gets used

Fraassen Suggestion

• Fraasse stated that understanding and it is objective through capabilities

Kitcher Argument Defenses

• Kitchers arguments support the claims that asymmetries also relate to unaligned notions, since his model does not endorse fake things

Kitcher Conclusion

• Kitcher made it his goal to improve understand by taking away brute thoughts, uniting us at large

Herformulering

• Kitcher redoes this pattern and systematic method by putting it into practice

Considerations

• Conceptual and systematic knowledge

Explanation

• Model uncovers concepts under similar argumentative styles

Patterns

• Summaries and precise things related to research

Kitcher's Perspective

• An overview

###Loose ends

• The strictness should offer heurtistic structures to begin with

###Preventiveness

• It avoids concepts, creates connections and provides a solid understanding to give clarity

Kitcher- Scientific Research

• He explored scientific researchers. In time a lot of new research becomes a political thing
• Science becomes intertwined with various societal concerns

Researchers

• They would soon be sponsored instead of being with the church

Critiques

• Researchers should determine if it's appropriate

2nd Version

• Used a better system to ensure economic focus

Better system

• With scientists and general public

Last system

• He'd show why to show the best form of governance

1st Part

• He made it clear it'd be societal

Distinctions

• Dangers are here

Objective vs Social

• It's political

Autonomy Promised

• It involves norms

Markets

• There can be great gains

Democrats

• This can bring harmful work

###System & information

• This builds scientific choices

Well Ordered Science

• It must come from a public sphere

More work to be done

• Must be better

Verbods

• One must always think and follow

Kitchner Warning

• He advised against looking at how distinct information can be

Norms

• The best way to be ethical

Longino

• Objectivity can form with certain social circumstances, and that's where I came across it

Individual Knowledge

• She mentions all must be considered

Emprical Sufficiency

• Should have information in it

Alternatives with knowledge

• New ideas

Longing Thoughts

• Can show what's needed for change

Evaluative

• One must make assessments

Borsboom

• Kramer talked about how psychology should not be fully biological

Networks Can assist

• Through a collective network that promotes different degrees of information

Inentionality & Importance

• Mental ideas change thoughts

Traditions

• Changes with environments

Authors notes

• Bio processes

Biases

• Certain orgs that get info

Authorts

• They support all

Reductionism

• This complex changes the mind

###Brainpower

• We have to know the facts

4 Main Things

• Not an effect

Inentionality

• Emotions can effect

Variability

• This is due to specific settings

Support

• This provides clear context

Connection with brain

• We may never know

Not working

• There's content & words that do not relate to our neural make up

Intentions

• Relationships through meaning

Values

• They are not a set

Interpretations

• A mindset is necessary to the core

###Two Red Flags

• Content is effective, with that having no structure

Genetic

• People who might suffer are more exposed

Biological

• Bio things can be assessed

###Longino

• There are some ideas on what's really effective

Essential Thoughts

• Ideas become important

Individual Knowledge

• It will eventually be effective

Traditions

• This becomes part

Objectivity

• There's no true clarity

Essential

• This helps make progress

###Van Franssen

• His new ideas need improvement

Ideas

• This might effect us all greatly

Epistemology

• We can not begin, because it effects things

Mehodotology

• There is no good end result

Observability

• Things can only be found with observations

Observation and discovery

• Observations are the gateway to our understanding

Belief & acceptance

• It was difficult even with time

Ideals

• Important to note

Different Views

• We can make many perspectives

It must exist

• Only that has value

The heart and mind

• Can one understand?