Labeling Theories and Howard S. Becker

Labeling Theories

• Labeling theories argue that societal labeling of individuals as deviant can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, perpetuating that deviant behavior.
• This labeling process can occur both informally and formally, with social groups creating deviance by establishing rules, enforcing those rules, and labeling individuals as outsiders.

Howard S. Becker

• Becker was a prominent sociologist who developed influential works on labeling theory, including "Becoming a Marihuana User" (1953) and "Outsiders" (1963).
• His work emphasizes how social groups define deviance and how labeling can shape an individual's self-concept and social participation.

Symbolic Interactionism

• This perspective emphasizes the exchange of meaning through social interaction and its influence on an individual's identity.
• It highlights how individuals construct their self-concept based on how others view them, a concept known as Cooley's "looking-glass self."
• Negative labels can act as independent variables, leading to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where an individual's behavior conforms to the label applied to them.

Types of Deviance

• Lemert distinguishes between primary and secondary deviance.
• Primary deviance is sporadic, usually unorganized, and often goes unnoticed or results in minor social consequences.
• Secondary deviance ensues when formal social control agents (e.g., police, courts) react to primary deviance with sanctions.
• This labeling process can lead to changes in an individual’s self-concept, limiting opportunities, and increasing involvement in deviant subcultures.

Deviance & Labeling Sequence

• Lemert outlines a sequence where primary deviation can escalate to secondary deviance through a series of interactions and escalating sanctions.
• Primary deviation is followed by social penalties, leading to further primary deviation. This can lead to stronger penalties and rejection, and ultimately to a deviant identity, where the individual fully internalizes and accepts the deviant label.

Labeling Theories

• Theories focus on the application of stigmatizing and deviant labels by society on individuals.
• Labeling can act as both a cause and effect of deviance.
• Labeling theories attempt to explain:
  • Why certain behavior is considered "wrong" by society.
  • Why certain people are targeted for stigmatization and criminalization.
• Labeling theories posit that "labels" can contribute to the continuation and escalation of criminal behavior.
• Who applies the labels and what determines when labels are applied are more important than the actual deviant act.

Howard S. Becker

• University of Chicago, 2nd wave of Chicago School.
• Professor of Sociology, Northwestern University (1965–1991).
• Eminent 20th century sociologist, known for his work on labeling theory.
• His work, Becoming a Marihuana User (1953), explored how users are labeled "social deviants" and the learning process involved.
• Outsiders (1963) is a key text in labeling theory.
• Argues that deviance is not a quality of the act itself, but rather a consequence of applying rules and sanctions.
• The deviant is someone to whom the label has been successfully applied.
• A deviant label can have adverse effects on self-image, public image, and further social participation.

Symbolic Interactionism

• An individual's identity is only understood in the context of social interactions with others.
• Symbolic interactionism focuses on the exchange of meaning through verbal and nonverbal communication in face-to-face interactions.
• This interaction plays a crucial role in an individual's self-identity.
• Cooley's (1902) looking-glass self:
  • Our self-concepts are reflections of how others perceive us.
  • We become what others perceive us to be.
• Negative labels can act as an independent variable, causing criminal behavior.
  • This is related to the idea of a self-fulfilling prophecy (Merton, 1957).

Types of Deviance (Lemert, 1951; 1967)

• Primary Deviance:

  • Arises from various sources (e.g., genetics, psychology, and sociology).
  • Sporadic and transitory (unorganized, inconsistent, and infrequent).
  • Individual commits deviance without recognizing the act(s) as deviant or holding a deviant self-concept.
  • Social Response: Most deviance is ignored, rationalized, or met with informal social penalties. Formal societal reactions can begin the labeling process.

• Labeling Process:

  • It is spurred by formal societal reactions to primary deviance.
  • Ways that labeling can lead to secondary deviance:
    • Alter self-concept (internalize “deviant” or “criminal” identity).
    • Limit conventional opportunities and relationships (educational, occupational, social, and romantic).
    • Encourage movement into deviant subcultures.

Deviance & Labeling Sequence (Lemert, 1951; 1967)

• This sequence describes how initial deviance can lead to increased deviance through social reactions and labeling.
• It demonstrates how labeling can lead to a self-fulfilling prophecy, where individuals internalize the label and embrace a deviant identity.