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Questions and Answers

Which bacteria is commonly found in the mouth and plaque?

Escherichia coli

Clostridium botulinum

Streptococcus sanguis (correct)

Salmonella enterica

Chronic stress affects the brain by impairing which of the following functions?

Hippocampal function (correct)

Olfactory processing

Vision processing

Motor control

What type of coping strategy focuses on reducing emotional responses rather than addressing the stressor directly?

Avoidant coping

Emotion-focused coping (correct)

Problem-focused coping

Proactive coping

Which of the following strategies is NOT considered an emotion-focused coping strategy?

Finding practical solutions Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of the perception of control over a stressor?

Reduces the impact of stress Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a potential consequence of chronic stress?

Increased risk for illness Signup and view all the answers

Which emotional strategy involves viewing a challenge as not a threat?

Re-appraisal Signup and view all the answers

What is a common feature of emotion-focused coping strategies?

Managing emotional responses Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the stomach in the digestive process?

Storing food until it is digested Signup and view all the answers

Which substance is primarily responsible for emulsifying fats in the digestive system?

Bile Signup and view all the answers

During which phase of energy metabolism are glucagon levels high and insulin levels low?

Absorptive phase Signup and view all the answers

What role does the hormone ghrelin play in the body?

Signals hunger Signup and view all the answers

In the human body, which storage form of energy is considered to attract water?

Glycogen Signup and view all the answers

What is a major reason for the preference for sweet, fatty, and salty foods?

Nutritional value and energy content Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the fasting phase of energy metabolism?

Energy is withdrawn from fat stores Signup and view all the answers

When does the cephalic phase of energy metabolism typically begin?

Before a meal is consumed Signup and view all the answers

What primarily enhances hunger cues in individuals?

Environmental signals Signup and view all the answers

Which process converts glycogen into glucose when needed for energy?

Conversion by glucagon Signup and view all the answers

Which organ primarily stores glycogen in the body?

Liver Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a significant drawback of protein as an energy storage form?

It is less energy-dense than fats Signup and view all the answers

How are fats transported after being emulsified in the digestive system?

Via small ducts into the lymphatic system Signup and view all the answers

Which foods are generally avoided due to their associated taste?

Bitter foods Signup and view all the answers

What is the initial physiological response to acute stress?

Heightened alertness Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is primarily released by the adrenal cortex during stress?

Cortisol Signup and view all the answers

What effect does chronic stress have on the immune system?

Weakened immune response Signup and view all the answers

Which brain structure is involved in releasing corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)?

Hypothalamus Signup and view all the answers

How does the sympathetic nervous system respond to stress?

Increases blood pressure Signup and view all the answers

What type of stressor do time pressures and financial concerns represent?

Acute stressors Signup and view all the answers

Which immune cells are responsible for attacking infected body cells?

Natural killer cells Signup and view all the answers

Which physiological effect is NOT associated with acute stress?

Lower energy levels Signup and view all the answers

What does the general adaptation syndrome describe?

Long-term stress and its stages Signup and view all the answers

Which immune cells are responsible for producing antibodies?

B cells Signup and view all the answers

What is a common small problem that can accumulate to cause major stress?

Daily hassles Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain regulates emotion during non-stress conditions?

VMPFC Signup and view all the answers

What role does cortisol play during stress?

Regulates immune response Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following effects can be a result of chronic stress?

Higher blood pressure Signup and view all the answers

Which brain structure is primarily involved in the consolidation of explicit memories?

Hippocampus Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of nitric oxide in neurotransmission?

It diffuses back to presynaptic neurons after synthesis. Signup and view all the answers

Which part of the brain is responsible for recognizing objects?

Rhinal cortex Signup and view all the answers

Which emotion is characterized by eyebrows being raised and pushed together?

Fear Signup and view all the answers

What does the cannon-bard theory of emotion suggest?

Both emotional and physiological responses occur at the same time. Signup and view all the answers

What role does the amygdala play in memory?

It enhances memories with emotional significance. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the prefrontal cortex in memory processing?

Working memory and order of events Signup and view all the answers

Which component is NOT included in the modern view of emotions?

Environmental components Signup and view all the answers

What type of stress is described as unpleasant and associated with challenges?

Distress Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following facial expressions is associated with contempt?

Lip corner tightened and raised on one side Signup and view all the answers

What was a key contribution of Guillaume-Benjamin Duchenne in emotion research?

Mapped facial muscle functions using electrical stimulation Signup and view all the answers

Which theory suggests that we feel emotions due to physiological responses?

James-Lange theory Signup and view all the answers

What type of tasks does the cerebellum primarily store memories for?

Sensorimotor skills Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of neuropeptide Y on appetite?

Increases appetite and preference for carbs Signup and view all the answers

Which satiety peptide is secreted in response to the presence of fats and amino acids in the duodenum?

Cholecystokinin (CCK) Signup and view all the answers

How does the appetizer effect influence food consumption?

Triggers the hunger response before the main meal Signup and view all the answers

What happens when leptin levels increase in the body?

Food intake decreases and metabolic rate increases Signup and view all the answers

What is sensory specific satiety?

Diminished pleasure for a specific food after consumption Signup and view all the answers

What effect does serotonin have in relation to eating behavior?

Reduces food intake and increases short-term satiety Signup and view all the answers

According to set point theories, what motivates eating behavior?

The presence of an energy deficit Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the lateral hypothalamus in eating behavior?

It stimulates appetite and increases food intake Signup and view all the answers

What is the settling point model in relation to body weight?

Weight stabilizes at a new level after significant weight loss Signup and view all the answers

Which hormone is primarily associated with increasing appetite in response to energy deficiency?

Ghrelin Signup and view all the answers

How does Peptide YY function in the digestive process?

Decreases gastric motility and appetite Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of cholecystokinin (CCK)?

Stimulate gallbladder contraction Signup and view all the answers

What is a major consequence of lesions in the ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH)?

Increased meal frequency and hyperphagia Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Hunger and Eating

Digestion breaks down food, absorbing nutrients. Eating provides the body with building blocks and energy.
Saliva lubricates food, breaking down starches.
The stomach stores food and breaks down protein into amino acids.
The small intestines absorb simple sugars and amino acids into the bloodstream and deliver fats to the liver in smaller units.
Energy comes from lipids, fatty acids, amino acids, and glucose.
Energy is stored in adipose tissue as triglycerides (85%), also stored in the liver as glycogen (0.5%) and in muscle tissue (14.5%).

3 Phases of Energy Metabolism

Cephalic Phase: Begins with interacting with food and its sight, smell or anticipation. This phase is pre-preparatory, characterized by high insulin and low glucagon levels, which promote the use of blood glucose as energy, converting excess glucose to glycogen and fat, converting amino acids into protein, and storing these resources. This phase inhibits the conversion of glycogen, fats, and proteins into fuel like glucose.
Absorptive Phase: Nutrients from food enter the bloodstream and are used for immediate energy requirements or stored. Insulin levels are high and glucagon levels are low which promotes the use of blood glucose as energy, converting excess glucose to glycogen and fat, converting amino acids into protein, and storing these resources. Inhibits the conversion of glycogen, fats, and proteins into fuel like glucose.
Fasting Phase: The body withdraws energy from stored sources to meet immediate needs. Glucagon levels are high and insulin levels are low, promoting the conversion of fats to free fatty acids, and the use of these as the main source of energy.

What We Eat

Tastes for sweet, salty, and fatty foods are common because these foods are often higher in energy and nutrients.
Modeling of food preferences can occur from an early age.
Infants prefer tastes found in breast milk, or the breath of other humans
Vitamins and minerals are vital in a healthy diet, especially those deficient in the body.

When We Eat

Pre-meal hunger can be influenced by a body's schedule.
Hunger cues and the environment can trigger eating.

Brain Mechanisms and Hunger Regulation

Ventromedial hypothalamus (VMH) is responsible for satiety. Damage causes increased eating, and stimulation causes decreased eating.
Lateral hypothalamus (LH) is responsible for initiating eating. Damage causes decreased eating.
Leptin, secreted by fat cells, slows gastric motility, increases water and electrolyte absorption, and decreases appetite.

Hunger Peptides

Ghrelin, produced by the stomach, signals hunger when the stomach is empty.
Cholecystokinin (CCK) is secreted to reduce hunger during the digestive process.

Potential Stimulators of Eating Behavior

Glucose-sensitive cells in the medulla activate NPY (neuropeptide Y) neurons to increase or maintain appetite.
Satiety signals from the gut, blood glucose, blood volume (nutrient density of food), and appetizers stimulate a response associated with eating.

Sensory Specific Satiety

Experience less pleasure/hunger when eating begins.
Positive incentive value→ how pleasurable a taste is.

Learning and Memory

Learning is experience-driven changes in the nervous system and behavior which is relatively permanent.
Memory is how the nervous system changes are retained and expressed.

Implicit Memory

Unconscious memory doesn't need to be recalled.
Types include associative conditioning, emotional (Amygdala), and somatic (cerebellum).

Procedural Memory

Requires repetition of procedures for learning

Priming

Habits and routines, sensory cortex

Stages of Memory:

General stages include acquisition, incoming information, and sensory buffers, encoding and storage.
Short-term and long-term consolidation leads to memory loss

Retrieval

Bilateral medial temporal lobectomy can relieve severe epilepsy
Hippocampus, amygdala, and Rhinal cortical areas are removed.
IQ improved from 104 to 118

Memory Consolidation

Memory temporarily stored in the hippocampus → moves to long-term storage.
Connections (strengthening synapses) cause long-term potentiation (LTP)

Depolarization of a Neuron

Synaptic strengthening. Stronger synapses are activated when at the same time that a postsynaptic neuron fires.
Requires sodium and calcium flow into the cell and when sufficient depolarization is reached, glutamate is released from the postsynaptic neuron. The inflow triggers an activation of enzymes.
AMPA receptors are moved into the spine
CA3 field is involved in memory processes: encoding and retrieving spatial and episodic memories, synchronous neural activity.

Emotion, Stress, and Health

Emotions are a full mind-body response to situations.
Facial expression can influence emotional experience.

Theories of Emotion

Common sense: emotion leads to a physiological response.
Cannon-bard theory: Physiological and emotional response occurs simultaneously.
James-lange theory: physiological arousal first then emotion.
Modern view: dynamic reaction of emotion to physiological, behavioral, and cognitive factors.

Stress

Eustress: Pleasant stress—associated with exercise or excitement
Distress: Unpleasant stress—related to illness or danger; Job-related, environmental-related.
Hassles: Small problems/time pressures leading to major stress
Stress response—acute stress, increase ability to manage stress, temporarily suppresses non-essential functions.
General adaptation syndrome: Alarm reaction → Resistance → Exhaustion

Biological Response to Stress

Hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis (HPA): System where hypothalamus activates the anterior pituitary, causing the release of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) to the adrenal cortex. This triggers the production of cortisol for stress response.
Sympathetic nervous system/adrenal medulla: Increases heart rate and respiration; lowers digestive functions.
Cortisol and norepinephrine are released.

Symptoms of Stress

Increased heart rate & respiration, elevated blood pressure, and decreased digestive function.

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