Kachru’s Three Circles Model of English

Kachru’s Three Circles Model

• Developed by Braj Kachru in 1985
• Highlights how English is used across the world based on its history and spread
• Countries are grouped into three circles reflecting their relationship to English and its prestige:
  • Inner Circle: English as a native language (UK, USA)
  • Outer Circle: Countries colonized by the British with English as an official language (India)
  • Expanding Circle: English as a foreign language, without a colonial history (China)

Global Language Criteria

• A high number of native speakers (L1) - Must be spoken by a significant proportion of people globally
• Speakers must be distributed over a diverse geographical area - The language must not be restricted to just one region
• Political and economic stability of the users - Helps to ensure that the language is widely used in various industries and sectors
• Widespread usage as a second language (L2) - Must be adopted by a significant portion of the population in different countries to serve as a common language for communication

Criteria for a Global Language

• Global Language: A language spoken and used across diverse cultures and countries, functioning as a common language for international discourse
• Multilingualism: The use of two or more languages by an individual or community, switching between languages based on different contexts
• Lingua Franca: A commonly used language for communication between speakers of different native languages
• Assimilation: The process of an individual or group adopting the language, culture, and practices of another group, leading to a loss of their original language and culture.

Threats to the English Language

• Nationalism: Identities rooted in a nation's beliefs and values, opposing English's influence
• Difficulty: Learning English can be perceived as challenging, deterring some from acquiring it.
• Accessible translation: Translation tools ease communication barriers leading to less demand for learning entire languages.
• Unofficial Varieties: Slangs and dialects (Singlish, Chinglish) challenge standardization.
• Power: English is used as a language of power in media, military, economics, and religion, creating potential for linguistic imperialism.

Accommodation Theory

• By Howard Giles, 1997
• Describes speakers adjusting their style of speech and language use to align with their conversational partners.
• Aims to enhance mutual understanding during interactions.

Interlanguage

• Language produced by second or foreign language learners who are still learning.
• Often includes errors as they are in the process of mastering the language.

Fragmentation

• The process whereby a language or dialect diverges into distinct varieties.
• Driven by geographical, social, or political factors.
• Can lead to a reduced mutual intelligibility between speakers of different varieties.

Standard English

• A recognized and accepted form of English used as a benchmark for comparison.
• Originated in the UK, particularly within the Oxford, Cambridge, London triangle, historically centers of power and influence.

Dialect

• A specific form of language characteristic of a particular region or social group.

Variety

• A broader term encompassing any specific form of a language, including dialects.
• Refers to the way language is used across different contexts or groups of people

Received Pronunciation

• An accent of Standard British English often associated with educated speakers in the UK.
• Historically considered a prestigious accent used in formal settings.
• Prestige: The level of respect or admiration assigned to a language or dialect within a society, influencing language choice and usage.

New Englishes

• Regional and non-regional varieties of English developed in regions where English is not the native language.
• Features distinct lexis, pronunciation, and syntax.
• Emerged through government administration, education, and media (e.g., Singaporean English)

Fragmentation (in New Englishes)

• The process of language divergence into distinct varieties over time.
• Caused by social, political, geographical factors.
• Often results in reduced mutual intelligibility for speakers of different varieties.
• Contributing Factors:
  • Development of cultural identities within isolated communities
  • Physical distance between groups leading to linguistic isolation
  • Urbanization or migration creating new linguistic communities
  • Colonization promoting a dominant language over local dialects.

Mutually Intelligible / Unintelligible

• Languages that speakers can understand without prior study are mutually intelligible.
• Languages that speakers cannot understand due to significant differences are mutually unintelligible.

Creole

• A fully developed language emerging from the mixing of two or more languages.
• Typically formed in contexts where speakers need to communicate despite different native languages.

Pidgin

• A simplified form of speech for communication between speakers of different languages.
• Usually lacks native speakers, characterized by limited vocabulary and simplified grammar.

Dialect Mixing

• The blending of features from different dialects or languages, resulting in new hybrid forms of speech.

Great American Paradox

• Though English is a dominant global language, there's a strong sense of regional identity and diversity within the US.
• American English is widely adopted internationally, yet rich in local variations.

The Golden Ages of Dictionaries

• Periods marked by the publication of influential dictionaries, contributing to standardization in the English language.

Linguistic Imperialism

• By Robert Phillipson
• The imposition of one language (often associated with power) onto speakers of another (minority) language.
• Arguments:
  • A dominant language can gain control of political, economic, and social institutions within a country.
  • The decline of a language can lead to cultural impoverishment.
  • Global English teaching programs (TESOL) contribute to linguistic imperialism.

Language Death

• The situation where a language or dialect has no remaining native speakers.

Types of Language Death

• Bottom-to-Top Death: Decline starts with less proficient speakers switching to a dominant language, eventually progressing to fluent users.
• Radical Language Death: Complete and immediate loss due to colonization or genocide.
• Gradual Language Death: Slow decrease in speakers as younger generations switch to a dominant language.
• Sudden Language Death: Abrupt loss caused by catastrophic events (e.g., natural disasters).