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Questions and Answers
What is the main characteristic of a prescriptivist approach to linguistics?
What is the main characteristic of a prescriptivist approach to linguistics?
What does dialect leveling primarily lead to?
What does dialect leveling primarily lead to?
Which statement accurately describes geographic diffusion in the context of language?
Which statement accurately describes geographic diffusion in the context of language?
What defines Standard English?
What defines Standard English?
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How do prescriptivist and descriptivist approaches differ?
How do prescriptivist and descriptivist approaches differ?
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What criteria is NOT required for a language to be considered a global language?
What criteria is NOT required for a language to be considered a global language?
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What does the term 'lingua franca' refer to?
What does the term 'lingua franca' refer to?
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Which of the following is a potential threat to the English language?
Which of the following is a potential threat to the English language?
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What process explains the change in language when groups adopt another culture's language?
What process explains the change in language when groups adopt another culture's language?
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What term describes the varieties of English that are not officially recognized, such as Singlish or Chinglish?
What term describes the varieties of English that are not officially recognized, such as Singlish or Chinglish?
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Which theory suggests that speakers modify their speech styles to enhance mutual understanding?
Which theory suggests that speakers modify their speech styles to enhance mutual understanding?
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What does Kachru’s Three Circles Model primarily highlight?
What does Kachru’s Three Circles Model primarily highlight?
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What is 'interlanguage' primarily associated with?
What is 'interlanguage' primarily associated with?
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Which of the following best describes the 'Inner Circle' in the context of English usage?
Which of the following best describes the 'Inner Circle' in the context of English usage?
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What is a significant advantage of the pluralization of Englishes?
What is a significant advantage of the pluralization of Englishes?
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According to David Graddol's 1997 model, what is expected to happen to native English speakers?
According to David Graddol's 1997 model, what is expected to happen to native English speakers?
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What does the 'Expanding Circle' represent in the context discussed?
What does the 'Expanding Circle' represent in the context discussed?
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One disadvantage of the current English classification model is that it implies:
One disadvantage of the current English classification model is that it implies:
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What does received pronunciation refer to?
What does received pronunciation refer to?
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What does the term 'lingua franca' refer to in relation to the expanding circles of English?
What does the term 'lingua franca' refer to in relation to the expanding circles of English?
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What focus should the education of English emphasize according to the new model proposed?
What focus should the education of English emphasize according to the new model proposed?
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What are New Englishes characterized by?
What are New Englishes characterized by?
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Which statement about the Outer Circle is correct?
Which statement about the Outer Circle is correct?
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What does fragmentation in language refer to?
What does fragmentation in language refer to?
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What distinguishes a creole from a pidgin?
What distinguishes a creole from a pidgin?
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How does urbanization contribute to language development?
How does urbanization contribute to language development?
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Which of the following statements is true about mutually intelligible languages?
Which of the following statements is true about mutually intelligible languages?
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What is the key characteristic of isolationism in language context?
What is the key characteristic of isolationism in language context?
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What is dialect mixing?
What is dialect mixing?
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What phenomenon describes the situation where one language dominates another, often linked to power structures?
What phenomenon describes the situation where one language dominates another, often linked to power structures?
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Which type of language death occurs gradually as younger generations switch to a dominant language?
Which type of language death occurs gradually as younger generations switch to a dominant language?
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What term refers to the creation of new words to describe local flora and fauna in different regions?
What term refers to the creation of new words to describe local flora and fauna in different regions?
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Which factor has contributed to the global dominance of the English language?
Which factor has contributed to the global dominance of the English language?
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What is a characteristic of 'bottom-to-top death' in language decline?
What is a characteristic of 'bottom-to-top death' in language decline?
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What concept involves the expansion of the U.S. across the American continents?
What concept involves the expansion of the U.S. across the American continents?
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What is a consequence of linguistic imperialism as argued by Robert Phillipson?
What is a consequence of linguistic imperialism as argued by Robert Phillipson?
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What period is characterized by the influential publication of dictionaries aiding in the standardization of English?
What period is characterized by the influential publication of dictionaries aiding in the standardization of English?
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Study Notes
Kachru’s Three Circles Model
- Developed by Braj Kachru in 1985
- Highlights how English is used across the world based on its history and spread
- Countries are grouped into three circles reflecting their relationship to English and its prestige:
- Inner Circle: English as a native language (UK, USA)
- Outer Circle: Countries colonized by the British with English as an official language (India)
- Expanding Circle: English as a foreign language, without a colonial history (China)
Global Language Criteria
- A high number of native speakers (L1) - Must be spoken by a significant proportion of people globally
- Speakers must be distributed over a diverse geographical area - The language must not be restricted to just one region
- Political and economic stability of the users - Helps to ensure that the language is widely used in various industries and sectors
- Widespread usage as a second language (L2) - Must be adopted by a significant portion of the population in different countries to serve as a common language for communication
Criteria for a Global Language
- Global Language: A language spoken and used across diverse cultures and countries, functioning as a common language for international discourse
- Multilingualism: The use of two or more languages by an individual or community, switching between languages based on different contexts
- Lingua Franca: A commonly used language for communication between speakers of different native languages
- Assimilation: The process of an individual or group adopting the language, culture, and practices of another group, leading to a loss of their original language and culture.
Threats to the English Language
- Nationalism: Identities rooted in a nation's beliefs and values, opposing English's influence
- Difficulty: Learning English can be perceived as challenging, deterring some from acquiring it.
- Accessible translation: Translation tools ease communication barriers leading to less demand for learning entire languages.
- Unofficial Varieties: Slangs and dialects (Singlish, Chinglish) challenge standardization.
- Power: English is used as a language of power in media, military, economics, and religion, creating potential for linguistic imperialism.
Accommodation Theory
- By Howard Giles, 1997
- Describes speakers adjusting their style of speech and language use to align with their conversational partners.
- Aims to enhance mutual understanding during interactions.
Interlanguage
- Language produced by second or foreign language learners who are still learning.
- Often includes errors as they are in the process of mastering the language.
Fragmentation
- The process whereby a language or dialect diverges into distinct varieties.
- Driven by geographical, social, or political factors.
- Can lead to a reduced mutual intelligibility between speakers of different varieties.
Standard English
- A recognized and accepted form of English used as a benchmark for comparison.
- Originated in the UK, particularly within the Oxford, Cambridge, London triangle, historically centers of power and influence.
Dialect
- A specific form of language characteristic of a particular region or social group.
Variety
- A broader term encompassing any specific form of a language, including dialects.
- Refers to the way language is used across different contexts or groups of people
Received Pronunciation
- An accent of Standard British English often associated with educated speakers in the UK.
- Historically considered a prestigious accent used in formal settings.
- Prestige: The level of respect or admiration assigned to a language or dialect within a society, influencing language choice and usage.
New Englishes
- Regional and non-regional varieties of English developed in regions where English is not the native language.
- Features distinct lexis, pronunciation, and syntax.
- Emerged through government administration, education, and media (e.g., Singaporean English)
Fragmentation (in New Englishes)
- The process of language divergence into distinct varieties over time.
- Caused by social, political, geographical factors.
- Often results in reduced mutual intelligibility for speakers of different varieties.
- Contributing Factors:
- Development of cultural identities within isolated communities
- Physical distance between groups leading to linguistic isolation
- Urbanization or migration creating new linguistic communities
- Colonization promoting a dominant language over local dialects.
Mutually Intelligible / Unintelligible
- Languages that speakers can understand without prior study are mutually intelligible.
- Languages that speakers cannot understand due to significant differences are mutually unintelligible.
Creole
- A fully developed language emerging from the mixing of two or more languages.
- Typically formed in contexts where speakers need to communicate despite different native languages.
Pidgin
- A simplified form of speech for communication between speakers of different languages.
- Usually lacks native speakers, characterized by limited vocabulary and simplified grammar.
Dialect Mixing
- The blending of features from different dialects or languages, resulting in new hybrid forms of speech.
Great American Paradox
- Though English is a dominant global language, there's a strong sense of regional identity and diversity within the US.
- American English is widely adopted internationally, yet rich in local variations.
The Golden Ages of Dictionaries
- Periods marked by the publication of influential dictionaries, contributing to standardization in the English language.
Linguistic Imperialism
- By Robert Phillipson
- The imposition of one language (often associated with power) onto speakers of another (minority) language.
- Arguments:
- A dominant language can gain control of political, economic, and social institutions within a country.
- The decline of a language can lead to cultural impoverishment.
- Global English teaching programs (TESOL) contribute to linguistic imperialism.
Language Death
- The situation where a language or dialect has no remaining native speakers.
Types of Language Death
- Bottom-to-Top Death: Decline starts with less proficient speakers switching to a dominant language, eventually progressing to fluent users.
- Radical Language Death: Complete and immediate loss due to colonization or genocide.
- Gradual Language Death: Slow decrease in speakers as younger generations switch to a dominant language.
- Sudden Language Death: Abrupt loss caused by catastrophic events (e.g., natural disasters).
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Description
Explore Braj Kachru's influential model that categorizes the use of English around the world. This quiz covers the three circles: Inner, Outer, and Expanding, and their significance in global communication. Test your understanding of global language criteria and the role of English in different contexts.
