Paper 3 and 4 Theories
144 Questions
1 Views

Choose a study mode

Play Quiz
Study Flashcards
Spaced Repetition
Chat to Lesson

Podcast

Play an AI-generated podcast conversation about this lesson

Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of 'New Englishes'?

  • To replace local languages
  • To serve as a common medium for communication (correct)
  • To impair cultural heritage
  • To promote Language Imperialism

What is Language Imperialism, according to Robert Philipson?

  • The dominance of one language over another (correct)
  • The promotion of local languages
  • The decline of a language's cultural heritage
  • The spread of New Englishes

What is the term used by Anne Pakir to describe a dominant language that causes the extinction of minor languages?

  • Lingua Franca
  • Killer Language (correct)
  • New Englishes
  • Language Imperialism

What is the underlying principle of speaking, according to Paul Grice?

<p>The cooperative principle (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the maxims of Quantity, according to Paul Grice?

<p>To make contributions as informative as necessary (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe a speaker's sense of their own linguistic image and worth?

<p>Conversational face (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key aspect of Kachru's circle model?

<p>It reflects the English language norms in a specific way (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of positive politeness strategies, according to Erving Goffman?

<p>To make the listener feel good about themselves (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a characteristic of the Outer Circle according to Kachru's model?

<p>It is norm-developing and easily adopts and perhaps develops its own norms (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the direction of the flow of language norms in Kachru's model?

<p>From the Inner Circle to the Outer Circle and then to the Expanding Circle (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of Language Imperialism, according to Robert Philipson?

<p>The decline and death of a language (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which circle is considered norm-providing in Kachru's model?

<p>The Inner Circle (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the way of expressing relations with nature, the world, and between people, according to Charles Hagège?

<p>Enormous cultural heritage (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of diverging from the maxims of conversation, according to Paul Grice?

<p>Higher divergence from the maxims (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a common perception about how the language should be spoken?

<p>That it should be spoken in a standardized way (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Kachru's circle model?

<p>The standards or norms of English language usage (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of negative politeness in a conversation?

<p>To mitigate a request or situation and show consideration for the other person (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the adversative conjunction 'but' in disagreements?

<p>To change or qualify what has just been said (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is a key aspect of conversational success according to Brown & Levinson?

<p>Taking account of the relative status of each participant (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind Robin Lakoff's Politeness Principle?

<p>That there are three maxims for polite speech (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main argument of the Historical Background Theory of language acquisition?

<p>That language acquisition is part of a person's general ability to reason (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key idea behind the Behaviourism Theory of language acquisition?

<p>That language acquisition is a result of imitation and observation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main argument of the Empiricism Theory of language acquisition?

<p>That language acquisition is a result of sense experiences and not reasoning (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between language and thought according to most linguists?

<p>The culture of a society shapes the way we think and talk (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the French philosopher who contributed to the Historical Background Theory of language acquisition?

<p>René Descartes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the title of the book published by B.F. Skinner in 1938?

<p>Behaviour of Organisms (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the fundamental idea behind the 'blank slate' or tabula rasa theory?

<p>The mind is a blank slate at birth and gains knowledge through experience (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who is the leading proponent of the view that the Language Acquisition Device enables the initial development of language?

<p>Noam Chomsky (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis?

<p>Language determines the way we think (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the opposite of linguistic determinism?

<p>Linguistic reflection (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the criticism of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis related to?

<p>The way in which data was collected and conclusions reached (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Boas-Jakobson principle?

<p>The concept that every thought can be expressed in every language (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between linguistic determinism and linguistic reflection?

<p>Linguistic determinism suggests that language determines thought, while linguistic reflection suggests that language reflects thought (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the idea that the structure of a language does affect the speaker's world?

<p>Linguistic relativity (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who developed the theory of innatism?

<p>Plato and Descartes (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the theory of nativism?

<p>The idea that the individual is born with genetic abilities that include language development (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the conclusion of O'Barra and Atkins about the quoted speech patterns?

<p>They are neither characteristic of all women, nor limited to only women. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of power do teachers, managers, and employers possess?

<p>Personal power (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the focus of Power behind Discourse, as described by Norman Fairclough?

<p>How the current situation of speakers affects their power asymmetry. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe a group of people who share specialist knowledge and language features?

<p>Discourse community (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of high social status, according to O'Barra and Atkins?

<p>Low frequency of women's language traits. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between language and power, according to Norman Fairclough?

<p>Language reflects power relationships between speakers. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which language does not mark masculine and feminine genders at all?

<p>Hungarian (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main theme of George Orwell's novel 1984?

<p>The power of language to control thought (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who developed the theory of universalism in the 1960s?

<p>Rik Pinxten (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea of the Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT)?

<p>People change their language to accommodate others (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who wrote the book 'You just don't understand; men and women in conversation'?

<p>Deborah Tannen (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe the official language of the fictional society in George Orwell's novel 1984?

<p>Newspeak (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the Boas-Jakobson Principle, can every thought be expressed in every language?

<p>Yes, but with different levels of complexity (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of men's conversation, according to Deborah Tannen's research?

<p>Giving and receiving information (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of women's conversation, according to Deborah Tannen's research?

<p>Giving and receiving information (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea of the Genderlect Theory?

<p>Men and women have different conversational styles (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Lakoff, which of the following features of language use is associated with women?

<p>Using hyper-correct grammar and pronunciation (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main argument of the Diversity Approach by O'Barr and Atkins?

<p>Language differences are due to power dynamics (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of using tag questions in conversations, according to Lakoff?

<p>To seek agreement and confirmation (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the study conducted by O'Barr and Atkins in courtrooms?

<p>To disprove Lakoff's theory of language and gender (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why do women tend to use more euphemisms, according to Lakoff?

<p>To avoid offending others and maintain social harmony (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the three pairs of speakers in O'Barr and Atkins' study?

<p>To prove that power dynamics affect language use (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of 'women's language' according to Lakoff?

<p>Speaking loudly and assertively (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main criticism of Lakoff's theory by O'Barr and Atkins?

<p>Lakoff's theory ignores the role of power dynamics (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why do women tend to use more qualifiers, according to Lakoff?

<p>To express hesitation and uncertainty (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the 30-month study conducted by O'Barr and Atkins?

<p>To challenge Lakoff's theory of language and gender (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main criticism of the Standpoint Theory?

<p>It doesn't account for differences among women's experiences. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the Muted Group Theory, what is the effect of a lack of power on certain groups?

<p>They are silenced and their voices are not heard. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the Dominance Approach?

<p>Men are naturally more dominant than women in conversations. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main criticism of the Deficit Approach?

<p>It is based on outdated stereotypes about women's language use. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the Difference Approach, what is the main difference between men and women's communication styles?

<p>Men and women use language for different outcomes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind Otto Jespersen's theory of women's language use?

<p>Women's language use is inferior to men's. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between the Dominance and Difference Approaches?

<p>The Dominance Approach suggests that men are more dominant, while the Difference Approach suggests that men and women use language for different outcomes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the current understanding of the differences between men and women's language use?

<p>The differences between men and women's language use are not as significant as previously thought. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the Standpoint Theory and the Muted Group Theory?

<p>Women's experiences and perspectives should be prioritized in language studies. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main limitation of the Deficit Approach?

<p>It is based on outdated stereotypes about women's language use. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Kachru's circle model in understanding the norms of English language?

<p>The model reflects how English language norms are set and spread globally, with the Inner Circle being norm-providing, the Outer Circle being norm-developing, and the Expanding Circle being norm-dependent.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the norms of English language spread according to Kachru's circle model?

<p>The norms spread from the Inner Circle to the Outer Circle and then to the Expanding Circle, with native speakers in the Inner Circle setting the standards.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main distinction between the Inner Circle and the Outer Circle in Kachru's model?

<p>The Inner Circle is norm-providing, while the Outer Circle is norm-developing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the Expanding Circle in Kachru's circle model?

<p>The Expanding Circle is norm-dependent, relying on the standards set by native speakers in the Inner Circle.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary issue raised by Kachru's circle model regarding English language norms?

<p>The issue is whether English language norms come from one source, such as Standard British English, or whether any group speaking English can set the standards.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does Kachru's circle model reveal about the dynamics of English language usage?

<p>The model reveals a one-directional flow of language norms from native speakers to non-native speakers, highlighting the complex dynamics of English language usage.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do New Englishes emerge and coexist with local languages in a country?

<p>Through government administration, education, and media, leading to the development of a variety of English with its own lexis, pronunciation, and syntax.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of Language Imperialism, according to Robert Philipson?

<p>The decline and death of a language, resulting in the impoverishment of its culture and those who speak it as their mother tongue.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the Cooperative Principle in conversation, according to Paul Grice?

<p>To express relevant information in a clear manner, following conventions such as being informative, relevant, sincere, and polite.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the concept of 'face' in conversation, according to Erving Goffman and Brown and Levinson?

<p>A speaker's sense of their own linguistic image and worth, which can be threatened or supported in conversation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do speakers manage face-threatening acts in conversation, according to Brown and Levinson?

<p>By using positive politeness strategies, such as compliments, to make the listener feel good about themselves.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the impact of diverging from the maxims of conversation, according to Paul Grice?

<p>Miscommunication, misunderstanding, or offense, as the conversation may not be cooperative or clear.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Language Imperialism, according to Robert Philipson?

<p>It can lead to the decline and death of a language, resulting in cultural loss.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between language and culture, according to Charles Hagège?

<p>Language expresses cultural heritage, including ways of expressing relations with nature, the world, and between people.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of media in the development of New Englishes?

<p>Media contributes to the spread and development of New Englishes, alongside government administration and education.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do speakers negotiate face in conversation, according to Erving Goffman and Brown and Levinson?

<p>By using strategies such as positive politeness, speakers can mitigate face-threatening acts and support the other's face.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of negative politeness strategies in a conversation?

<p>To mitigate requests or situations that might restrict the freedom of the other person.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do people often manage disagreements in conversations?

<p>By using phrases like 'yes, but' instead of a direct 'no', which can help to soften the disagreement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind Robin Lakoff's Politeness Principle?

<p>It emphasizes the importance of taking into account the relative status of participants in a conversation to achieve success.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the relationship between language and thought according to most linguists?

<p>The culture of a society, including its lifestyle, traditions, and innovations, shape the way we think, and thus, to some extent, influence the way we talk.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the Historical Background Theory of language acquisition?

<p>Language acquisition is part of a person's general ability to reason.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key idea behind the Behaviourism Theory of language acquisition?

<p>Acquisition of language is directly related to the child's observation and imitation of those in the world around them.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main argument of the Empiricism Theory of language acquisition?

<p>The mind at birth is a 'clean slate' on which all experiences develop, and our sense of self-identity and knowledge of language come through our senses and experiences.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the adversative conjunction 'but' in disagreements?

<p>It qualifies or changes what has just been said in some way, softening the disagreement.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind Brown & Levinson's theory of politeness?

<p>Positive and negative politeness strategies are used to take account of the relative status of participants in a conversation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the key aspect of conversational success according to Brown & Levinson?

<p>Employing strategies that take account of the relative status of each participant.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the concept of 'Newspeak' in George Orwell's novel 1984?

<p>It is a clear case of language controlling the thoughts of the speakers, where the lexis is limited and no one can rebel against the rulers as there are no words to express dissatisfaction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the theory of universalism?

<p>It suggests that language is a reflection of human thoughts and that all languages are similar with shared patterns and concepts.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary focus of Deborah Tannen's research on conversational styles?

<p>The differences in conversational styles between men and women in Western societies, particularly in terms of status, independence, and relationships.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Communication Accommodation Theory (CAT) and what does it suggest about human communication?

<p>It suggests that individuals change their speech, vocal patterns, and gestures to accommodate others during interactions, because they desire to appear similar to those they spend time with.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Boas-Jakobson Principle and what does it suggest about language and thought?

<p>It suggests that every thought can be expressed in every language, albeit with differing required bits of information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Hungarian, Finnish, and Vietnamese languages in the context of linguistic relativity?

<p>These languages do not mark masculine and feminine genders at all, demonstrating that language can be more or less specific about gender.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the theory of linguistic relativity?

<p>It suggests that the structure of a language can influence the way speakers think about the world.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main argument of the Standpoint Theory?

<p>The theory suggests that studies about women, including their language, should be practiced from the point of view of women.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the novel 1984 in the context of linguistic relativity?

<p>It provides a fictional example of how language can be used to control thought and limit the expression of dissent, demonstrating the potential dangers of linguistic control.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of women's conversation, according to Deborah Tannen's research?

<p>Women's conversation is more focused on building and reinforcing cooperative relationships and negotiating strategies, such as compromising over differences of opinion and using polite forms of address.</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to the Muted Group Theory, what is the reason for the silencing of minority groups?

<p>The theory suggests that certain minorities in a society have much less power than others, and as a consequence of this lack of power, they are silenced.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main argument of the Dominance Approach?

<p>The theory proposes that men are naturally more dominant than women, and women act in a less dominant way around men.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the concept of language and thought in the context of linguistic relativity?

<p>It suggests that language can influence the way speakers think about the world, and that the structure of a language can shape thought and perception.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the Difference Approach?

<p>The theory supports the idea that male and female individuals have different lifestyles, and therefore, they use language for different outcomes.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the main points of Otto Jespersen's theory about women's language?

<p>Women talk a lot and use half-finished sentences, they link sentences with ‘and’ because they are emotional, and they use adjectives such as ‘pretty’ and ‘nice’ often.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the focus of the Standpoint Theory and the Muted Group Theory?

<p>Both theories focus on the language and power dynamics between men and women, and how women's voices are often silenced or marginalized.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the Dominance Approach and the Difference Approach differ in their views on language and gender?

<p>The Dominance Approach proposes that men are naturally more dominant than women, while the Difference Approach suggests that men and women have fundamentally different modes of communication.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the implications of the Dominance Approach and the Difference Approach on our understanding of language and gender?

<p>The Dominance Approach implies that men have more power and control over language, while the Difference Approach suggests that men and women have different communication styles.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do the theories of language and gender relate to our understanding of power and inequality?

<p>The theories highlight the importance of power dynamics in shaping language use and understanding, and how language can be used to reinforce or challenge inequality.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the implications of the theories of language and gender for our understanding of communication and social relations?

<p>The theories suggest that communication is not just about exchanging information, but also about negotiating power and social relations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the concept of Power in Language, as described by Wareing?

<p>The concept of Power in Language, as described by Wareing, is that there are three types of power: Personal, Political, and Social Group.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do O'Barr and Atkins explain the relationship between social status and language use?

<p>O'Barr and Atkins suggest that a person's social status, which may be derived from their social standing or status accorded by the court, can affect their language use.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the focus of Norman Fairclough's theory of Power behind Discourse?

<p>The focus of Power behind Discourse, as described by Norman Fairclough, is how the current situation of speakers affects their power asymmetry or difference.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the term used to describe a group of people who share specialist knowledge and language features, according to Swales?

<p>The term used to describe a group of people who share specialist knowledge and language features, according to Swales, is 'Discourse Communities'.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of language use in the constitution of Discourse Communities, according to Swales?

<p>Language use is important in the constitution of Discourse Communities, as it helps to establish and maintain the community's shared values and specialist knowledge.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind Norman Fairclough's theory of Power in Discourse?

<p>The main idea behind Norman Fairclough's theory of Power in Discourse is that language use reflects the power relationships between speakers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main argument of Robin Lakoff's theory of language and gender inequality?

<p>Language is fundamental to gender inequality and contributes to the lack of women's power in two areas: language used about women and language used by women.</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to Lakoff, what are some features of women's language that give the impression of weakness and uncertainty?

<p>Features such as speaking less frequently, using minimal responses, speaking more quietly, using hyper-correct grammar and pronunciation, and using question intonation in declarative statements.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main argument of O'Barr and Atkins' Diversity Approach?

<p>Language differences are situation-specific, relying on who has the authority and power in a conversation, rather than the gender of the people involved.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did O'Barr and Atkins discover in their study of courtroom cases?

<p>They discovered that Lakoff's proposed differences in language use were not necessarily the result of being a woman, but of being powerless.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main critique of Lakoff's theory by O'Barr and Atkins?

<p>Lakoff's theory that language differences are due to gender is too simplistic, and does not take into account the role of power and authority in shaping language use.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the study by O'Barr and Atkins on language and power?

<p>Their study highlights the importance of considering the role of power and authority in shaping language use, rather than simply attributing language differences to gender.</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do women's language patterns change when they are in positions of power?

<p>Women in positions of power tend to use language that is more direct, assertive, and less polite, similar to men in positions of power.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the implication of O'Barr and Atkins' study for our understanding of language and gender?

<p>It suggests that language differences are not purely the result of gender, but are shaped by the complex interplay of power, authority, and social context.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of Lakoff's theory for understanding language and gender?

<p>Lakoff's theory highlights the ways in which language use can reflect and reinforce gender inequality, and the importance of considering language as a factor in shaping social relationships.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between Lakoff's theory and O'Barr and Atkins' Diversity Approach?

<p>Lakoff's theory focuses on language differences as a result of gender, while O'Barr and Atkins' Diversity Approach emphasizes the role of power and authority in shaping language use.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the 'blank slate' or tabula rasa theory?

<p>The idea that the mind is born without innate ideas and that all knowledge comes from experience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who is the leading proponent of the view that the Language Acquisition Device enables the initial development of language?

<p>Noam Chomsky</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis?

<p>The idea that language determines the way we think and that the words and grammar of a language shape the thoughts of its speakers.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the opposite of linguistic determinism?

<p>Linguistic reflection</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the Boas-Jakobson principle?

<p>The principle that every thought can be expressed in every language, but languages differ in the types of information they require speakers to mention when they use the language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the criticism of the Sapir-Whorf hypothesis related to?

<p>The way in which data was collected and conclusions reached.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the idea that the structure of a language does affect the speaker's world?

<p>Linguistic relativity</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who developed the theory of innatism?

<p>Plato and Descartes</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main idea behind the theory of nativism?

<p>The idea that humans are born with a genetic ability to acquire language.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main difference between linguistic determinism and linguistic reflection?

<p>Linguistic determinism suggests that language determines thought, while linguistic reflection suggests that language only reflects thought.</p> Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Language and the World

  • Kachru's Circle Model (1985) explains how English language norms are developed and spread:
    • Inner Circle (UK, US): norm-providing
    • Outer Circle (India, Nigeria): norm-developing
    • Expanding Circle (rest of the world): norm-dependent on Inner and Outer Circles
  • New Englishes: varieties of English developed in different countries through government, education, and media
    • each variety has its own lexis, pronunciation, and syntax
  • Language Imperialism: dominance of one language over another, leading to the decline and death of other languages and cultures
  • Killer Language: a dominant language that causes the gradual extinction of other languages

Conversational Maxims

  • Cooperative Principle: people wish to express relevant information in a clear manner
  • Grice's Maxims (1975):
    • Quantity: be informative, but not too informative
    • Relation: be relevant
    • Quality: be truthful and have evidence
    • Manner: be polite, avoid ambiguity, and be brief

Conversational Face

  • Theory of Face (Erving Goffman, 1967): each speaker's sense of their own linguistic image and worth
  • Positive Politeness: strategies to make the listener feel good (e.g., compliments, offers of help)
  • Negative Politeness: strategies to mitigate requests or impose on others (e.g., apologies, indirect requests)

Theories of Language and Thought

  • Historical Background Theory (Descartes): language acquisition is part of a person's general ability to reason
  • Behaviourism Theory (John Watson, 1913): acquisition of language and self-identity through observation and imitation
  • Empiricism (John Locke, 1690): knowledge and language come through experience and senses
  • Innatism (Plato, Descartes): the mind is born with ideas and language abilities
  • Nativism (Noam Chomsky): language acquisition device enables the development of language and sense of self

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

  • Language determines the way we think and perceive the world
  • Linguistic Determinism: language shapes our thoughts and perceptions
  • Linguistic Relativity: language influences our views of the world, but does not determine them

Criticisms and Alternatives

  • Boas-Jakobson Principle: every thought can be expressed in every language, but with differing required bits of information
  • Universalism: language is a reflection of human thoughts and all languages share similar patterns and concepts
  • Communication Accommodation Theory (Howard Giles, 1973): individuals change their speech to accommodate others
  • Genderlect Theory (Deborah Tannen, 1990): men and women have different conversational styles, with men focusing on status and independence, and women on relationships and cooperation### Gender and Language
  • Jespersen (1922) believed that women learn language quicker than men, but men learn more in-depth.
  • Women's language was characterized as using more adverbs, hyperbole, and simpler vocabulary, with a smaller range of words.
  • Women were seen as more fluent in speaking, but less hesitant than men.
  • Novels written by women were considered easier to read due to the use of simpler words and terminology.
  • Women were more likely to gain spoken mastery of foreign languages, but men were superior in translating difficult texts.

Dominance Theory (Robin Lakoff, 1975)

  • Lakoff argued that language contributes to gender inequality in two areas: language used about women and language used by women.
  • Women's language features were seen as weaker and less certain than men's language.
  • Characteristics of women's language included:
    • Speaking less frequently
    • Using minimal responses (e.g., "mm", "yeah")
    • Speaking more quietly and in a higher pitch range
    • Using hyper-correct grammar and pronunciation
    • Using question intonation in declarative statements
    • Overusing qualifiers and hedge phrases
    • Making more emotional evaluations
    • Using more adjectives to describe approximate amounts
    • Using euphemisms and diminutives more than men
    • Avoiding slang and coarse language

Diversity Approach (William O'Barr and Bowman Atkins, 1980)

  • O'Barr and Atkins challenged Lakoff's theory, suggesting that language differences are situation-specific and dependent on power dynamics, not gender.
  • They studied courtroom cases and found that "women's language" components were not unique to women, but rather associated with powerlessness.
  • The researchers concluded that language patterns were "neither characteristic of all women, nor limited to only women."

Theories about Power in Language

  • Language and Power (Wareing): three types of power exist - personal, political, and social group.
  • Power behind Discourse (Norman Fairclough): the current situation of speakers affects their power asymmetry or difference.
  • Power in Discourse (Norman Fairclough): language used reflects the power relationships between speakers.
  • Discourse Communities (Swales): people acquire language features of a professional community as they become members of a professional community.

Language and the World

  • Kachru's Circle Model (1985) explains how English language norms are developed and spread:
    • Inner Circle (UK, US): norm-providing
    • Outer Circle (India, Nigeria): norm-developing
    • Expanding Circle (rest of the world): norm-dependent on Inner and Outer Circles
  • New Englishes: varieties of English developed in different countries through government, education, and media
    • each variety has its own lexis, pronunciation, and syntax
  • Language Imperialism: dominance of one language over another, leading to the decline and death of other languages and cultures
  • Killer Language: a dominant language that causes the gradual extinction of other languages

Conversational Maxims

  • Cooperative Principle: people wish to express relevant information in a clear manner
  • Grice's Maxims (1975):
    • Quantity: be informative, but not too informative
    • Relation: be relevant
    • Quality: be truthful and have evidence
    • Manner: be polite, avoid ambiguity, and be brief

Conversational Face

  • Theory of Face (Erving Goffman, 1967): each speaker's sense of their own linguistic image and worth
  • Positive Politeness: strategies to make the listener feel good (e.g., compliments, offers of help)
  • Negative Politeness: strategies to mitigate requests or impose on others (e.g., apologies, indirect requests)

Theories of Language and Thought

  • Historical Background Theory (Descartes): language acquisition is part of a person's general ability to reason
  • Behaviourism Theory (John Watson, 1913): acquisition of language and self-identity through observation and imitation
  • Empiricism (John Locke, 1690): knowledge and language come through experience and senses
  • Innatism (Plato, Descartes): the mind is born with ideas and language abilities
  • Nativism (Noam Chomsky): language acquisition device enables the development of language and sense of self

The Sapir-Whorf Hypothesis

  • Language determines the way we think and perceive the world
  • Linguistic Determinism: language shapes our thoughts and perceptions
  • Linguistic Relativity: language influences our views of the world, but does not determine them

Criticisms and Alternatives

  • Boas-Jakobson Principle: every thought can be expressed in every language, but with differing required bits of information
  • Universalism: language is a reflection of human thoughts and all languages share similar patterns and concepts
  • Communication Accommodation Theory (Howard Giles, 1973): individuals change their speech to accommodate others
  • Genderlect Theory (Deborah Tannen, 1990): men and women have different conversational styles, with men focusing on status and independence, and women on relationships and cooperation### Gender and Language
  • Jespersen (1922) believed that women learn language quicker than men, but men learn more in-depth.
  • Women's language was characterized as using more adverbs, hyperbole, and simpler vocabulary, with a smaller range of words.
  • Women were seen as more fluent in speaking, but less hesitant than men.
  • Novels written by women were considered easier to read due to the use of simpler words and terminology.
  • Women were more likely to gain spoken mastery of foreign languages, but men were superior in translating difficult texts.

Dominance Theory (Robin Lakoff, 1975)

  • Lakoff argued that language contributes to gender inequality in two areas: language used about women and language used by women.
  • Women's language features were seen as weaker and less certain than men's language.
  • Characteristics of women's language included:
    • Speaking less frequently
    • Using minimal responses (e.g., "mm", "yeah")
    • Speaking more quietly and in a higher pitch range
    • Using hyper-correct grammar and pronunciation
    • Using question intonation in declarative statements
    • Overusing qualifiers and hedge phrases
    • Making more emotional evaluations
    • Using more adjectives to describe approximate amounts
    • Using euphemisms and diminutives more than men
    • Avoiding slang and coarse language

Diversity Approach (William O'Barr and Bowman Atkins, 1980)

  • O'Barr and Atkins challenged Lakoff's theory, suggesting that language differences are situation-specific and dependent on power dynamics, not gender.
  • They studied courtroom cases and found that "women's language" components were not unique to women, but rather associated with powerlessness.
  • The researchers concluded that language patterns were "neither characteristic of all women, nor limited to only women."

Theories about Power in Language

  • Language and Power (Wareing): three types of power exist - personal, political, and social group.
  • Power behind Discourse (Norman Fairclough): the current situation of speakers affects their power asymmetry or difference.
  • Power in Discourse (Norman Fairclough): language used reflects the power relationships between speakers.
  • Discourse Communities (Swales): people acquire language features of a professional community as they become members of a professional community.

Studying That Suits You

Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.

Quiz Team

Description

Explore the concept of language norms in English, particularly in the context of Kachru's Circle model. Discover how standards of English are shaped and what influences their correctness.

More Like This

Use Quizgecko on...
Browser
Open
Browser
Browser