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Questions and Answers

Why is relying solely on intuition inadequate for fully understanding the causes of behavior?

  • Intuition is too complex to be applied to real-world situations.
  • Intuition is often based on personal biases and limited observations. (correct)
  • Intuition is generally more accurate than scientific methods when assessing human behavior.
  • Intuition is not based on any prior experience or knowledge, making it unreliable.

How do research psychologists primarily contribute to the field?

  • By focusing on ethical considerations in psychological studies, rather than conducting research.
  • By developing new scientific methods for data collection.
  • By applying existing psychological research to improve daily living.
  • By generating new knowledge about the causes of behavior using scientific methods. (correct)

In what way are humans considered 'everyday scientists'?

  • Everyone has formal training in conducting research projects.
  • Humans are able to predict future events with high accuracy.
  • Individuals use rigorous scientific methods to analyze daily events.
  • People naturally seek answers to questions about the world and the behavior of themselves and others. (correct)

What is the primary goal when people collect data as 'everyday scientists'?

<p>To gain insights into why events occur and predict future behavior. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most important commonality among all psychologists, regardless of their specific focus or area of study?

<p>Use of scientific methods to investigate behavior and mental processes. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How do psychologist-practitioners utilize scientific methods in their work?

<p>They apply existing research to enhance individuals' everyday lives. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes data collected through formal observation or measurement from anecdotal evidence?

<p>Formal data is systematically collected and verifiable, while anecdotal evidence is based on personal accounts. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is the MOST accurate definition of a conceptual variable?

<p>An abstract idea or construct that forms the basis of a research hypothesis. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher is studying the effect of sleep deprivation on cognitive performance. What would be the MOST appropriate operational definition for the conceptual variable "sleep deprivation?"

<p>The number of hours a participant has gone without sleep prior to the cognitive test. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In a study investigating the relationship between exercise and stress levels, "exercise" is measured by the number of hours spent at the gym per week, and "stress levels" are measured using a standardized anxiety questionnaire. What is the relationship between the conceptual and the measured variables?

<p>Exercise and stress levels are conceptual variables, while the number of hours and the anxiety score are measured variables. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A researcher hypothesizes that "Increased social media use leads to decreased self-esteem." Which of the following pairs represents the conceptual variables in this hypothesis?

<p>&quot;Social media use&quot; and &quot;self-esteem&quot; (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A study aims to examine the impact of a mindfulness app on stress reduction. Participants report their stress levels using a 7-point Likert scale before and after using the app for a month. What represents the measured variable in this scenario?

<p>The change in stress levels reported on the Likert scale (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is it challenging to accurately predict individual behavior, even with psychological assessments?

<p>Individual behavior is influenced by a multitude of variables, making predictions probabilistic rather than definitive. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean to say that behavior is 'multiply determined'?

<p>Behavior is produced by many interacting factors at different levels of explanation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why should one be skeptical of explanations that attribute complex human behaviors to a single cause?

<p>Complex behaviors are typically influenced by numerous interacting factors. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key challenge in pinpointing the causes of a psychological condition like depression?

<p>Multiple causes often overlap and interact, making it difficult to isolate specific effects. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How can social responses complicate the understanding of biological determinants in a condition like depression?

<p>Social responses can exacerbate or alleviate biological imbalances, making it difficult to isolate the original cause. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant difficulty in studying human behavior from a psychological perspective?

<p>Many behaviors are influenced by factors outside of our conscious awareness. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements best reflects the probabilistic nature of psychological predictions?

<p>Psychological predictions offer general tendencies but cannot guarantee outcomes for specific individuals. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the context of studying depression, what does the interaction between biological imbalances and social responses suggest?

<p>The interplay between biological and social elements creates a complex cycle that influences the severity and persistence of depression. (E)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Based on the information, what approach should one adopt when evaluating claims about the causes of complex human behaviors?

<p>Maintain a skeptical perspective and consider multiple interacting factors. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Elaborative encoding is most effective when it involves which of the following?

<p>Relating new information to personal experiences and goals. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The method of loci enhances memory by utilizing what technique?

<p>Associating pieces of information with familiar locations. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the spacing effect influence learning and memory retention?

<p>It improves retention by distributing study sessions over time. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

According to psychological research, what is the most effective approach to learning new information?

<p>Actively elaborating on its significance and linking it to prior knowledge. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What did Rogers, Kuiper, and Kirker's (1977) study reveal about memory and self-reference?

<p>Information is better remembered when related to oneself. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is cramming an ineffective method for learning?

<p>All of the above. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Memory supplements are often likened to sugared soda because both:

<p>Provide a temporary glucose boost that marginally enhances memory. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary benefit outlined regarding setting challenging but achievable goals?

<p>Performance improves as a result of focused effort and motivation. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A politician claims a new mental health center will improve inner-city lives. How would a psychologist approach this claim?

<p>Empirically assess the effects of mental health treatment on the quality of life. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does it mean for a statement made by a psychologist to be 'empirical'?

<p>It is based on systematic collection and analysis of data. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the most important difference between simple repetition and elaborative encoding?

<p>Elaborative encoding focuses on the meaning of information, while simple repetition does not. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is objectivity important to the scientific method?

<p>It reduces personal bias or emotions influencing the research process. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How might one apply the method of loci to remember a list of historical events?

<p>Associate each event with a specific location along a familiar route. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does the scientific method promote scrutiny of data?

<p>By reporting data objectively, allowing other scientists to analyze and interpret it. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Why is replication an important part of the scientific method?

<p>It helps accumulate scientific knowledge through verification or modification of previous findings. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does a research hypothesis relate to a broader theory?

<p>It is a more precise, testable statement derived from the theory. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What are the key components of a good research hypothesis?

<p>It is specific, falsifiable, and states the relationship between variables. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes a 'variable' in the context of a research hypothesis?

<p>An attribute that can assume different values among different people or across different times or places. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary goal of stating the specific direction of a relationship in a research hypothesis?

<p>To clearly define the expected outcome and allow for focused testing. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

A study finds no relationship between two variables that a researcher hypothesized were related. What does this imply?

<p>The research hypothesis was not supported, and the researcher may need to revise their theory or methods. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Psychology's Core Method

Psychologists share a common reliance on scientific methods.

Research Psychology

Using scientific methods to produce new knowledge about the causes of behaviour.

Psychologist-Practitioners

Using existing research to improve people's lives.

Data Defined

Any information gathered through structured observation or measurement.

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Humans as 'Everyday Scientists'

The view that people naturally seek answers about the world and human behaviour.

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Why We Ask Why

We instinctively seek explanations for events and behaviors.

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The Purpose of Knowledge

To discover why things happen, predict future events, and potentially reproduce or change them

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Active Learning

Actively manipulating information to learn effectively.

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Rehearsal

Repeating information over and over again.

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Elaborative Encoding

Actively thinking about the meaning of information and connecting it to existing knowledge.

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Self-Reference Effect

Learning information best when you relate it to yourself.

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Method of Loci

Linking information to familiar places to aid recall.

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Spacing Effect

Remembering material better when studied in shorter periods over time.

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Cramming

Studying everything right before an exam.

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Realistic Goal Setting

Setting goals that are challenging but achievable to improve performance.

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How do we acquire information?

Psychological research finding that we acquire information effectively when we actively think about or elaborate on it's meaning.

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Method of loci

Refers to linking pieces of information to places that you are familiar with.

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Individual Differences

Variations among individuals in traits and behaviors.

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Probabilistic Predictions

Psychological predictions are not absolute but based on probabilities.

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Multiply Determined

Behavior results from many influencing factors.

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Levels of Explanation

Explanations considering genetic, personal, and social factors.

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Intertwined Causes

Causes are interconnected, making it hard to isolate specific effects.

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Unconscious Awareness

Factors that affect our behavior without our realization.

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Single-Cause Skepticism

Be skeptical of single-cause explanations of human behavior.

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Multifactorial Influence

The many different factors combine and influence each other to determine behavior.

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Associated Causes

When one cause is present, other related causes are likely to be present too.

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Research Hypothesis

A statement predicting a relationship between two or more variables.

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Conceptual Variables

Abstract ideas that form the basis of research hypotheses (e.g., anxiety, learning).

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Measured Variables

Variables consisting of numbers that represent conceptual variables.

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Operational Definition

A precise statement of how a conceptual variable is turned into a measured variable.

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Psychological Statements

Statements based on systematic collection and analysis of data.

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Empirical Assessment

Assessing effects of treatments or changes on individuals' lives through data collection and analysis.

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Empirical Statements

Statements based on systematic data collection and analysis.

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The Scientific Method

A common framework for developing, organizing, and sharing information in science.

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Objectivity

Free from personal bias or emotions.

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Replicate

Repeating, adding to, or modifying previous research findings.

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Variable

Any attribute that can assume different values among different people or across different times or places.

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Hypothesis Direction

States the existence of a relationship between the variables and the specific direction of that relationship.

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Data Scrutiny

The rules of the scientific method provides the ability for other scientists to asses interpretations of data and draw different conclusions.

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Increased Objectivity

Scientific method increases objectivity by placing data under the scrutiny of other scientists and even the public at large.

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Study Notes

  • The unit explores psychology as a science, intuition's role, empirical methods, levels of explanation, and challenges in studying psychology.
  • It aims to explain relying on intuition is insufficient, to describe the difference between values and facts, and explain the use of the scientific method.

Introduction

  • Psychologists employ scientific methods to generate new knowledge and enhance everyday life.
  • Humans are naturally scientists, seeking to understand, predict, and influence events.
  • People collect data to understand events, exemplified by analyzing test performance, relationship breakups, or terrorist acts.

The Problem of Intuition

  • "Everyday" research projects offer insights into human behavior, including blame attribution, depression, and theories of aggression.
  • Everyday data collection can be unsystematic, leading to the adoption of explanations that seem correct but are inaccurate.
  • Eyewitnesses have similar strong confidence in both correct and incorrect identifications.
  • People can be convinced of ESP or astrology's validity despite lacking evidence.
  • Cognitive and motivational biases can lead to incorrect conclusions.
  • Accepting explanations without thorough testing can create an illusion of understanding.
  • Hindsight bias, the tendency to believe past events were predictable, can lead to overconfidence in one's predictive abilities.
  • Research on attraction can be presented with contradictory outcomes, which participants understand and believe in both scenarios.

Why Psychologists Rely on Empirical Methods

  • Scientists use empirical methods to collect, organize, and draw conclusions from data.
  • The scientific method allows for shared information and consists of assumptions, rules, and procedures for empirical research.
  • Not all questions about human behavior can be answered scientifically.
  • Scientific inquiry distinguishes between values (personal statements) and facts (objective statements).
  • Values cannot be proven or disproven by science, but research can inform the development of personal values.
  • Science aims to establish facts, but fact-value distinctions can be blurred, and scientific findings may be revised.
  • Empiricism and objectivity in science improve the chances of accurately understanding human behavior.

Levels of Explanation in Psychology

  • Psychology investigates diverse topics, including human behavior, on varying levels of explanation.
  • Lower levels connect to biological influences, middle levels to individual characteristics, and higher levels to social contexts.
  • Depression can be studied by studying the brain chemicals to cultural factors.
  • Antidepressants affect brain chemicals, psychological therapy aids coping, and cultural studies reveal depression differences.
  • Multiple levels of explanation are needed for a full understanding of behavior.

The Challenges of Studying Psychology

  • Psychological experiences are complex, and studying disorders like depression is difficult.
  • Individual differences in reactions to situations make behavior prediction difficult.
  • Individual differences include variations in extraversion, intelligence, self-esteem, anxiety, aggression, and conformity.
  • Predictions are probabilistic; intelligence tests can indicate general success but not individual outcomes.
  • Behavior is multiply determined by lower-level genetic factors, medium-level personal factors, and higher-level social factors.
  • Single-cause explanations of behavior should be approached with skepticism.
  • Multiple causes intertwine, such as biological imbalances leading to negative social interactions, complicating analysis.
  • Unconscious factors influence behavior, impacting understanding; Freud emphasized the role of unconscious processes in disorders.
  • Current research supports unconscious drives, such as past trauma, and their impact on conscious behaviour.

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