Islamic Scholars and Mystics Quiz
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Questions and Answers

Who is known as the author of The Book of Kings?

  • Abū 'l-‘Alā’ al-Ma‘arrı̄
  • Abū 'Ali ibn Sı̄nā
  • Firdawsı̄ (correct)
  • Mah.mūd of Ghazni

    • Which scholar is recognized for his work in Ash‘arite theology?

  • Al-Bāqillānı̄ (correct)
  • Ibn H.azm
  • Abū Rayh.ān al-Birūnı̄
  • Abū 'l-Qāsim ‘Abd al-Karı̄m al-Qushayrı̄

    • Which Persian mystic was the founder of Kāzarūnı̄ya?

  • ‘Abd ar-Rah.mān as-Sulamı̄
  • Abū Sa‘ı̄d ibn Abı̄ ’l-Khayr
  • Abū 'Ali al-Kharaqānı̄ (correct)
  • Abū 'Ali ibn Sı̄nā

    • What is the title of Abū Nu‘aym Al-Is.fahānı̄'s notable work?

    <p>Ornament of the Friends of God</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which scholar completed his work in 1031/422?

    <p>Abū Sa‘ı̄d ibn Abı̄ ’l-Khayr</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was a significant early member of the Baghdad school and the contemporary of H.allāj?

    <p>Abū Bakr al-Kattānı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major work did Ibn an-Nadı̄m author that includes a biographical dictionary?

    <p>Fihrist</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theorist is known for introducing elements of Mu’tazilite methodology into mainstream theology?

    <p>Al-Ash‘arı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the name of the major Islamic philosopher of Turkic descent?

    <p>Al-Fārābı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following figures is associated with the founding of the Azhar mosque in Cairo?

    <p>Fāt.imid dynasty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who authored the 'Book of Mystical Sayings and Mystical Addresses'?

    <p>‘Abd al-Jabbār an-Niffarı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main focus of the work authored by Abū Nas.r as-Sarrāj?

    <p>Sufism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mystic is recognized as a major figure in Shiraz around the year 1000?

    <p>Ibn Khafı̄f</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who founded the Yasawı̄ya order?

    <p>Ah.mad Yasawı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which poet is known for the work titled The Conference of the Birds?

    <p>Farid ad-Dı̄n ‘At.t.ār</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which figure was a prominent early leader of the Chishtı̄ya order?

    <p>Mu‘ı̄n ad-Dı̄n Chishtı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which ruler sought to revive the spiritual life of Islam against the Mongol threat?

    <p>An-Nās.ir</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the influential Moroccan ascetic in the Shādhilı̄ya order?

    <p>‘Abd as-Salām ibn Mashı̄sh</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which scholar authored The Benefits of Intimate Knowledge?

    <p>Abū H.afs.‘Umar as-Suhrawardı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the dervish associated with Rūmı̄ and an inspiration for much of his lyric?

    <p>Shams ad-Dı̄n Tabrı̄zı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which city served as the capital of the Mamlūk dynasty after they halted the Mongol advance?

    <p>Cairo</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant role did Niz.ām al-Mulk play in relation to Abū H.āmid al-Ghazālı̄?

    <p>He appointed him as a professor at Niz.āmı̄ya madrasa.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which individual is known for writing the classic work 'The Hidden Garden of Ultimate Reality'?

    <p>Abū ’l-Majd Majdūd Sanā’ı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the broader significance of the First Crusade that began in 1096?

    <p>It led to the establishment of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which Sufi leader is recognized as the eponym of the Qādirı̄ order?

    <p>‘Abd al-Qādir al-Jı̄lānı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which scholar was exiled by Niz.ām al-Mulk in 1066?

    <p>Khwāja ‘Abd Allāh Ans.ārı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the famous Persian poet that used a potter's metaphor to convey God's role in the mystical experience?

    <p>Umar Khayyām</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was a notable disciple of Ah.mad al-Ghazālı̄ that faced persecution in Baghdad?

    <p>‘Ayn al-Qud.āt al-Hamadhānı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which individual is noted for blending prose and poetry in their writing?

    <p>Abū Qāsim Ah.mad as-Sam‘ānı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What aspect of Sufism does Dr. Renard focus on when teaching students and outsiders?

    <p>The rich culture and diversity associated with it</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which institution provided a Mellon Summer Stipend to support the project?

    <p>Saint Louis University</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is acknowledged for their flexibility in the timing of the project's delivery?

    <p>Jon Woronoff</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does Jon Woronoff hold in relation to the volume discussed?

    <p>Series editor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which colleague is not mentioned as providing comments on drafts?

    <p>Matt Gilbertson</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of assistance did Matt Gilbertson and Inta Ivanovska provide?

    <p>Editorial assistance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following institutions is associated with the use of a cover photo?

    <p>Saint Louis Art Museum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a key teaching focus of Dr. Renard regarding Sufism?

    <p>The intersection of culture and theology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which figure was executed on the charge of blasphemy for proclaiming, 'I am the Truth'?

    <p>H.allāj of Baghdad</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The period known as the 'formative' period of Sufism runs from the time of the Prophet until about 339/950.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the origin of the term 'Sufism'?

    <p>It is derived from the woolen garments of early ascetics.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the second period of Sufism, also referred to as the 'elucidation' period?

    <p>The evolution of standard Sufi practices and technical terminology.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sufis sympathetic to H.allāj interpret his claims as a response to a divine intimacy that __________ the human personality.

    <p>annihilates</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sufism is considered the most precise term for all mystical movements within Islam.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What year was the book 'Historical Dictionary of Sufism' by John Renard published?

    <p>2005</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following Sufi figures with their approach to mysticism:

    <p>H.allāj = Intoxicated mysticism Junayd = Sober mysticism Muh.āsibı̄ = Theological caution Dhū ’n-Nūn = Bold insights</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ Press, Inc. published the book 'The A to Z Guide Series'.

    <p>Scarecrow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following components of the book with their respective page numbers:

    <p>Introduction = 1 Chronology = xxi Glossary = 261 Bibliography = 279</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT included in the contents of the book?

    <p>Index</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The publisher of the book is based solely in the United States.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is acknowledged for providing the foreword in the book?

    <p>Jon Woronoff</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following items is included in this volume?

    <p>An extensive bibliography</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The chronological table in the volume focuses exclusively on Islamic history.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of illustrations are included in the volume?

    <p>Photos of Sufi activities and medieval Sufi architecture.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The dictionary entries in the volume are biased towards _____ terminology to assist non-specialist readers.

    <p>English</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following components of the volume with their descriptions:

    <p>Chronology = List of major events in Sufi history Glossary = Definitions of technical terms Dictionary = Entries on Sufi terminology Illustrations = Visual representations of Sufi themes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which approach is primarily used in the bias of the dating in the chronological table?

    <p>Non-Islamic solar years</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The volume includes cross-referencing of foreign terms with English equivalents.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What bias is maintained regarding the terminology used in the dictionary?

    <p>A bias towards Arabic terminology.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The volume provides a _____ overview of approaches to the history of Sufism.

    <p>historical introduction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of content does the extensive bibliography include?

    <p>Thematically organized resources</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the first Shi'i Imam?

    <p>'Ali ibn Abi Talib</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Umayyad dynasty was founded with Jerusalem as its capital.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is commemorated on the 10th of Muharram?

    <p>The martyrdom of Husayn ibn Ali</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The completion of the Dome of the Rock occurred in the year ______.

    <p>692</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following scholars to their contributions:

    <p>Abū H.ānifa = Founder of the H.ānafi school of Sunni law Mālik ibn Anas = Meccan founder of a dominant Sunni law school Ja‘far al-S.ādiq = Shı̄‘ı̄ leader and mystical exegesis figure Ibrāhı̄m ibn Adham = Khurāsānı̄ ascetic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following figures is recognized for a model of piety as a ruler?

    <p>Umar II</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The legal implications of the Quran were systematically put into form by the four Sunni law school founders in the 8th century.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ was completed in 715/96-97 and is traditionally identified as the goal of the Prophet's Night Journey.

    <p>Al-Aqsa Mosque</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the first Christian mystic to articulate the purgative, illuminative, and unitive phases of the mystical path?

    <p>Maximus the Confessor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What central concept lies at the heart of Sufi religious faith?

    <p>Relational experience with God</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sufism only flourished in the 18th and 19th centuries without any significant challenges.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one of the Sufi orders mentioned that has had a significant influence in Iraq.

    <p>Qādirı̄ya</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Jalāl ad-Dı̄n Rūmı̄ is noted as the original “________ Dervish.”

    <p>Whirling</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following historical figures to their contributions or roles in Sufism:

    <p>Muh.ammad = Final prophet in Islam Abraham = Model of trust in God David = Biblical king known for his writings Jesus = Important figure in Christianity and Islam</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which regions did Sufism spread to from the Middle East?

    <p>North Africa and parts of Asia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The survival of Islam in the Five Stans during the Soviet era was influenced by Sufism.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is one feature commonly seen in the religious experiences of prophets according to Sufi authors?

    <p>Intimate relationships with God</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ of these prophets serves as prime models for every Sufi seeker.

    <p>examples</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of these statements reflects a misconception about Sufism?

    <p>Sufism has always been a dominant form of Islam.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What do spiritual directors within Sufism primarily draw inspiration from?

    <p>The holy Qur'an and the figure of Prophet Muhammad</p> Signup and view all the answers

    All Sufi orders agree on the same points of doctrine.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one aspect of cultural wealth that Sufism encompasses.

    <p>Art, music, dance, or literature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The diversity of Sufism can be confusing to __________.

    <p>outsiders</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the components of John Renard's work with their descriptions:

    <p>Chronology = Traces important figures in Sufism Introduction = Summarizes salient aspects of Sufism Dictionary = Allows exploration of individual aspects of Sufism Glossary = Defines terminology in various languages</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which institution has John Renard been teaching at since 1978?

    <p>Saint Louis University</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The glossary in the book is considered unimportant for study.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is considered the primary author of 'The A to Z of Sufism'?

    <p>John Renard</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which figure was notably executed on charges of blasphemy for proclaiming, 'I am the Truth'?

    <p>H.allāj of Baghdad</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Sufism's 'formative' period is recognized as extending up to the year 950.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of mysticism did Junayd and Muh.āsibı̄ advocate as a counter to more exuberant expressions?

    <p>sober mysticism</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The second period of Sufism, described as 'elucidation', runs from about 339/950 to __________.

    <p>494/1100</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following Sufi figures with their characteristics or contributions:

    <p>H.allāj = Executed for alleged blasphemy Junayd = Proponent of sober mysticism Dhū ’n-Nūn = Bold insights into divine relationships Bāyazı̄d = Known for his ecstatic statements</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which figure founded the Ni‘mat-Allāhı̄ya order?

    <p>Shāh Ni‘mat Allāh Walı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The fall of Constantinople occurred in 1453.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name the Moroccan author known for a popular Sufi prayer book.

    <p>Abū ‘Abd Allāh al-Jazūlı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mawlāna ‘Abd ar-Rah.mān Jāmı̄ was a Persian poet and __________.

    <p>hagiographer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following figures with their contributions:

    <p>Kazı̄r Bābā = Author of The Perfect Person Muh.ammad Aq Shams ad-Dı̄n = Influenced Mehmet the Conqueror Jalāl ad-Dı̄n as-Suyūtı̄ = Major religious scholar in Cairo Khwāja ‘Ubayd Allāh Ah.rār = Central Asian Naqshbandı̄ Shaykh</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What was the primary achievement of the Safavid dynasty?

    <p>Establishment of Shi‘ism as the official creed of Iran</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Eshrefoğlu Rūmı̄ was a significant Turkish mystical poet active in the 16th century.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what year did the Muslim rule in Spain end?

    <p>1492</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ of the Walı̄ Songo refers to the 'nine saints' of Indonesia.

    <p>period</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following figures was responsible for making Shī‘ism the official creed of Persia?

    <p>Ismā‘ı̄l, S.afawid Shāh</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Theresa of Avila authored 'The Interior Castle.'

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the second great Mughal emperor?

    <p>Hamayun</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The founder of the Rawshanīya movement was Bāyazı̄d _____ (Pı̄r-i Rawshan or 'Radiant Master').

    <p>Ans.ārı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which poet is known for the work 'Burda' praising the Prophet’s mystical status?

    <p>Sharaf ad-Dı̄n al-Bus.ı̄rı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which individual is considered a court poet during Akbar's reign?

    <p>Muh.ammad ash-Shı̄rāzı̄ ‘Urfı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ramon Lull was a German mystic who was influenced by Sufi literature.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following figures with their primary contribution or role:

    <p>Ignatius of Loyola = Founder of Jesuits order Sulaymān the Magnificent = Ottoman ruler and patron of Sufis John of the Cross = Spanish Christian mystic Shaykh ‘Alı̄ al-Mut.t.aqı̄ = Leader of the Chishtı̄ya order</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one of the poets recognized for their contribution to mystical literature during the 16th century.

    <p>Hamza Fans.ūrı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is recognized as the founder of the Mawlawı̄ya order?

    <p>Sult.ān Walad</p> Signup and view all the answers

    _________ was a major Turkish Sufi poet known for his profound spiritual writings.

    <p>Yūnus Emre</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Muh.ammad Ghawth Gwāliyārı̄ was an Indonesian Sufi.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The mystical author and poet famous for 'Interior Castle' was _____ of Avila.

    <p>Theresa</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following figures with their contributions:

    <p>Amı̄r Khusraw = Founder of Indo-Muslim musical tradition Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzı̄ya = Theologian who wrote about ritual prayer Mah.mūd ash-Shabistarı̄ = Author of 'Rose Garden of Mystery' ‘Alā’ ad-Dawla Simnānı̄ = Persian mystic and author</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which figure was known as a major medieval Hanbalı̄ theologian who criticized Sufism?

    <p>Ibn Taymı̄ya</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Burhān ad-Dı̄n Gharı̄b succeeded Niz.ām ad-Dı̄n Awliyā’ in the Chishtı̄ order.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name the Indian Sufi known for giving up theological study to live an ascetic life.

    <p>Shāh Abū ‘Alı̄ Qalandar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The work 'Mysteries of Ritual Prayer' was written by _________.

    <p>Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzı̄ya</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which Sufi mystic emphasized the concept of divine ineffability?

    <p>Meister Eckhart</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is known as the 'wise fool' famous for his blunt social critique?

    <p>Buhlul ibn ‘Amr</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ma'mūn was an 'Abbāsid caliph who favored Mu‘tazilite rationalist thought.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What mystical state did Shaqı̄q al-Balkhı̄ originate the discussion of?

    <p>mystical states</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ah.mad ibn H.anbal is known for being the founder of the __________ Sunnı̄ school of law.

    <p>fourth</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following figures with their contributions:

    <p>Rābi‘a al-‘Adawı̄a = First true Muslim mystic Al-H.ārith ibn Asad al-Muh.āsibı̄ = Mystical teacher and theorist Bishr ibn al-H.ārith 'Al-H.āfı̄' = Famous ascetic known as 'The Barefoot' Sayyida Naf ı̄sa = Descendant of the Prophet known for virtue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which Sufi figure is noted for their constantly changing mystical states?

    <p>Rābi‘a ash-Shāmı̄ya</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The tomb of Sayyida Naf ı̄sa is found in Baghdad.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the 'Abbāsid caliph from 813-833 who sponsored Arabic translations of scientific texts?

    <p>Ma'mūn</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the Mughal emperor known for trying to establish a religious eclecticism?

    <p>Akbar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mumtaz Mahal was a renowned Sufi scholar who built the Taj Mahal.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Identify the Naqshbandı̄ reformer active in 1624.

    <p>Ah.mad Sirhindı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The influential Afghan Naqshbandı̄ scholar and author of 1603 is __________.

    <p>Khwāja Bāqı̄ Bi-’llāh</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following scholars with their contributions:

    <p>Shams ad-Dı̄n as-Samat.rānı̄ = Indonesian Sufi scholar involved in the wujūdı̄ controversy Ismā‘ı̄l Rusı̄hı̄ Anqarāwı̄ = Wrote commentary on Rūmı̄'s Mathnawı̄ Muh.ammad Ghawthı̄ = Composed hagiography of 575 Indo-Muslim saints Mīyān Mı̄r = Indian Qādirı̄ Sufi and spiritual counselor</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which figure is recognized as the founder of the Naqshbandı̄ya order?

    <p>Khwāja Bahā’ ad-Dı̄n Naqshband</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ibn Bat.t.ūta is known for his detailed account of Sufi life and institutions.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What major dynasty did Timur Lang found?

    <p>Timurid dynasty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The __________ was a significant influence on the arts and Sufism during the Timurid period.

    <p>Timurid dynasty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following scholars with their contributions:

    <p>Ibn Khaldun = Historian and philosopher Jalāl ad-Dı̄n H.usayn al-Bukhārı̄ = Prolific writer in religious fields Muhammad Shams ad-Dı̄n Hafiz = Mystical poet Sayyid Muhammad al-H.usaynı̄ Gı̄sū Darāz = Indian scholar of Chishtı̄ya order</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which event occurred first in the provided chronology?

    <p>Ming dynasty overthrows Mongol Yuan dynasty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bahā’ ad-Dı̄n Naqshband was an early leader of the Chishtı̄ya order.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name one key figure associated with the early Naqshbandı̄ order.

    <p>Khwāja Muhammad Parsā</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Iyā’ ad-Dı̄n Baranı̄ wrote about Niz.ām ad-Dı̄n's influence in the __________.

    <p>Chishtı̄ya</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is unique about Ibn ‘Abbād ar-Rundı̄?

    <p>He was a famed letter writer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the influential mystic that authored 'The Perfect Person'?

    <p>'Abd al-Karı̄m al-Jı̄lı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The S.afawid dynasty ruled Persia and promoted Shi'ism as the official religion.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What event marked the end of Muslim rule in Spain?

    <p>Expulsion of the Nas.rid dynasty from Granada</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The mystical poet influential in the beginnings of Sikh tradition is _____ Kabı̄r.

    <p>Indian Muslim</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following authors with their notable works:

    <p>Muh.ammad Aq Shams ad-Dı̄n = Influenced Mehmet the Conqueror Shams ad-Dı̄n Muh.ammad Lāhijı̄ = Persian poet and shaykh Abū ‘Abd Allāh al-Jazūlı̄ = Sufi prayer book on trust Mı̄r ‘Alı̄ Shı̄r Nawā’ı̄ = Chagatay version of Conference of the Birds</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following Sufi figures was a Central Asian Naqshbandı̄ shaykh?

    <p>Khwāja ‘Ubayd Allāh Ah.rār</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mawlāna ‘Abd ar-Rah.mān Jāmı̄ was a famous Indian poet.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The period known as the Walı̄ Songo refers to the _____ of Indonesia.

    <p>nine saints</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant event occurred in 1453 related to the Ottoman Empire?

    <p>Fall of Constantinople</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following authors is known for influencing Sufi literature and was a prominent figure from Catalonia?

    <p>Ramon Lull</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Burda is a work known for its praise of the mystical status of the Prophet.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name the Turkish poet and author who was the son of Rūmı̄.

    <p>Sult.ān Walad</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The author of the Book of Aphoristic Wisdom was Ibn __________ Allāh.

    <p>‘At.ā</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following figures with their contributions:

    <p>Amı̄r Khusraw = Founder of Indo-Muslim musical tradition Ibn Taymı̄ya = Critic of Sufism Nas.ı̄r ad-Dı̄n Mah.mūd Chirāgh-i Dihlı̄ = Successor to Niz.ām ad-Dı̄n Awliyā’ Mah.mūd ash-Shabistarı̄ = Author of Rose Garden of Mystery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main theme depicted in the works of Mah.mūd ash-Shabistarı̄?

    <p>Mystical experience</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzı̄ya emphasized the importance of ritual prayer in his writing.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which Indian Sufi scholar propagated Chishtı̄ya in India?

    <p>Niz.ām ad-Dı̄n Awliyā’</p> Signup and view all the answers

    _______ ad-Dı̄n Gharı̄b succeeded Niz.ām ad-Dı̄n Awliyā’ in the Chishtı̄ order.

    <p>Burhān</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which Persian spiritual figure was the ancestor of the Safawid order?

    <p>S.āfı̄ ad-Dı̄n Ardabı̄lı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following Sufi authors focused on defending Sufism against criticisms from religious officials?

    <p>Sarrāj</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The term 'Sufism' is etymologically derived from the Arabic word for 'silk'.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Arabic term commonly translated as 'Sufism'?

    <p>tas.awwuf</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The practice of asceticism in Sufism often emphasizes spiritual poverty through material __________.

    <p>poverty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following Sufi terms with their meanings:

    <p>Faqīr = Mendicant Darwīsh = Spiritual seeker Sūf = Wool Tas.awwuf = Spiritual purity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which scholar is known for assembling one of the two most significant collections of H.adı̄th?

    <p>Al-Buhkārı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Twelfth Imām of the Twelver Shı̄‘a is believed to have gone into 'Lesser Concealment' and acts as the Lord of Time.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the Central Asian theorist mentioned in the content?

    <p>Muh.ammad ibn ‘Alı̄ al-H.akı̄m at-Tirmidhı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    _____________ is known for his ecstatic utterances in Persian mysticism.

    <p>Abū H.afs al-H.addād</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following scholars with their contributions:

    <p>Ibrāhı̄m al-Khawwās = Itinerant ascetic from Iraq Sahl at-Tustarı̄ = Early Sufi exegete and theorist Ah.mad Ghulām Khalı̄l = Brought charges against Sufis Yah.yā ibn Mu‘ādh ar-Rāzı̄ = Sufi preacher of Nishapur</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the notable contribution of H.unayn ibn Ish.āq?

    <p>Translation work from Greek</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Junayd is considered the greatest of the 'sober' mystics.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Name the historical figure known for describing Sufi ascetical practices at Basra.

    <p>‘Alı̄ ibn ar-Rūmı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the disciple of Junayd associated with the mystical teachings in Baghdad?

    <p>Ja‘far al-Khuldı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following scholars was a famous Indian H.adı̄th scholar and hagiographer?

    <p>Muh.addith ‘Abd al-H.aqq Dihlawı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Azhar mosque was founded as a center for Sunni intellectual life.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mirān H.usayn Shāh was noted for translating Arabic texts into English.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What work is Ibn an-Nadı̄m known for authoring?

    <p>Fihrist</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The great historiographer and Qur’ān commentator is ______.

    <p>Abū Ja‘far at.-T.abarı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is the Mughal builder of the Taj Mahal?

    <p>Shāh Jahān</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the Sufi scholar with their contribution:

    <p>Ibn Khafı̄f = Major mystic of Shiraz Mutanabbı̄ = Arab H.amdānid court panegyrist Al-Ash‘arı̄ = Leading theologian Abū T.ālib al-Makkı̄ = Author of manual 'Sustenance of Hearts'</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The notable poet Madhō Lāl H.usayn was a poet in __________.

    <p>Panjabi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following figures with their notable contributions:

    <p>Angelus Silesius = German Christian mystic Sı̄dı̄ Mah.mūd al-Baghdādı̄ = West African Sufi shaykh Liu Chih = Chinese scholar and hagiographer Ibrāhı̄m ibn H.asan al-Kuranı̄ = Kurdish mystic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which theorist completed significant work in the field of Sufism from Central Asia?

    <p>Muh.ammad ibn ‘Alı̄ al-H.akı̄m at-Tirmidhı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Abū Nas.r as-Sarrāj was known for writing about the influence of Persian literature on Sufism.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mystic was executed in Mughal India for provocative teachings?

    <p>Sarmad</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Khushh.āl Khān Khattak translated works of Sa‘dı̄ and Jāmı̄ into Urdu.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which significant dynasty ruled the central Middle East from Cairo during the period mentioned?

    <p>Fāt.imid dynasty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ibn Masarra was an influential __________ author in Iberia.

    <p>mystical</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What treatise is Dārā Shikūh known for?

    <p>The Confluence of the Two Seas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Shaykh ‘Abd ar-Rah.mān Chishtı̄ was a leader of the __________ order.

    <p>Chishtı̄ya</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which prominent mystic was known for his enigmatic writings and lived around 965?

    <p>Abd al-Jabbār an-Niffarı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following figures with their background:

    <p>Ja‘far al-‘Aydarūs = Translated Saf ı̄nat al-awliyā’ into Arabic Zı̄b an-Nisā’ = Daughter of Mughal Awrangzeb and a poetess Mullā Shāh Badakhshı̄ = Disciple and successor of Miyān Mı̄r Pı̄r Muh.ammad Ma‘s.ūm = Claimed to be second in ranks among selected by God</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which Sufi poet is known for writing mystical verse in Urdu?

    <p>Mı̄r Taqı̄ Mı̄r</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Nādir Shāh invaded Sindh in 1747.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who translated the Qur'an into Persian?

    <p>Shāh Walı̄ Allāh of Delhı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    ____ was a notable Indian Sufi reformer who aimed to separate Islam from Shī‘a and Hindu syncretism.

    <p>Sayyid Ah.mad Brelwı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following individuals with their contributions:

    <p>Shāh ‘Abd Al-Lat.ı̄f Bhitā’ı̄ = Mystic poet from Hyderabad-Sindh Bulhe Shāh = Greatest Panjābı̄ Sufi poet ‘Abd al-Wahhāb Sachal Sarmast = Sindhı̄ Sufi poet Shāh Walı̄ Allāh of Delhı̄ = Scholar who translated the Qur'an into Persian</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary role of Makhdūm Muh.ammad Hāshim?

    <p>Mystic attacking emotional aspects of religion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ghālib Dede was a member of the Mawlawı̄ya order.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what year did Nādir Shāh conquer Persia?

    <p>1722</p> Signup and view all the answers

    _________ is recognized as a prominent Chinese Naqshbandı̄ leader.

    <p>Ma Laichi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the father of Mı̄r Dard?

    <p>Nās.ir Muh.ammad</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which institution provided funding through the Smithsonian Collections Acquisition Program?

    <p>Arthur M. Sackler Gallery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The famous Persian poet, Rumi, is known primarily for his historical narratives.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What year was the book 'Historical Dictionary of Sufism' published?

    <p>1998</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The book 'The A to Z Guide Series' was published by __________ Press, Inc.

    <p>the University of California</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following figures with their contributions:

    <p>Sultan Muhammad = Painted notable works John Renard = Authored 'Windows on the House of Islam' Arthur M. Sackler = Established a museum collection Carl W. Ernst = Supplied calendar art</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following museums is associated with a purchase that includes the identifier S1986.432?

    <p>Arthur M. Sackler Gallery</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The St. Louis Art Museum contributed multiple works to the collection presented.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who is recognized for supplying the calendar art featured in the collection?

    <p>Carl W. Ernst</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which Mughal emperor is noted for attempting to establish a religious eclecticism?

    <p>Akbar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Mumtaz Mahal was the wife of the Mughal emperor Shah Jahan, who built the Taj Mahal in her memory.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who composed a hagiography of 575 Indo-Muslim saints?

    <p>Muhammad Ghawthi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Naqshbandi reformer Ahmad ________ was influential in Sufism.

    <p>Sirhindi</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following Sufi figures with their contributions:

    <p>Khwāja Bāqı̄ Bi-’llāh = Teacher of Ahmad Sirhindi Shams ad-Dı̄n as-Samat.rānı̄ = Indonesian Sufi scholar involved in the wujūdı̄ controversy Ismā‘ı̄l Rusı̄hı̄ Anqarāwı̄ = Commentary on Rūmī’s Mathnawī Bahā’ ad-Dı̄n Āmilı̄ = Persian Shī‘ī Sufi poet</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who authored a popular Sufi prayer book focused on trust in God and the Messenger?

    <p>Abu ‘Abd Allah al-Jazuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The fall of Constantinople occurred in 1453.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which dynasty ruled Persia from 1501 to 1738 and established Shi'ism as its official creed?

    <p>S.afawid dynasty</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The period known as the Walı̄ Songo refers to the _______ of saints in Indonesia.

    <p>nine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following Sufi figures with their contributions:

    <p>Mawlāna ‘Abd ar-Rah.mān Jāmı̄ = Author of The Seven Thrones Kabı̄r = Influential in Sikh tradition Fall of Constantinople = Beginning of Ottoman Empire expansion Mı̄r ‘Alı̄ Shı̄r Nawā'ı̄ = Chagatay Turkish literature</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which mystic influenced Mehmet the Conqueror?

    <p>Muh.ammad Aq Shams ad-Dı̄n</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Shams ad-Dı̄n Muh.ammad Lāhijı̄ was an Indian Muslim mystical poet.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What city did the Nas.rid dynasty rule before being expelled in 1492?

    <p>Granada</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Shāh Ni‘mat Allāh Walı̄ studied the theology of ______.

    <p>Ibn al-‘Arabı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In what century did the S.afawid dynasty rise to power?

    <p>16th Century</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following individuals is known as the original 'Whirling Dervish'?

    <p>Mawlānā Jalāl ad-Dı̄n Balkhı̄ Rūmı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Ibn Sab‘ı̄n was a prominent Sufi figure from Persia.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the order founded by Abū ’l-H.asan ash-Shādhilı̄?

    <p>Shādhilı̄ya</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The famous mystic __________ was a significant influence on Rūmı̄.

    <p>Sayyid Ah.mad al-Badawı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following Sufi figures with their contributions:

    <p>Najm ad-Dı̄n Dāyā Rāzı̄ = Wrote Path of the Godservants to the Starting Point Farı̄d ad-Dı̄n Ganj-i Shakar = Teacher of Niz.ām ad-Dı̄n Awliyā H.ājjı̄ Bektāsh Walı̄ = Eponym of Bektāshı̄ya Mu‘ı̄n ad-Dı̄n Parwane = Minister of the Saljūqid dynasty of Konya</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which Sufi figure is associated with the founding of Dasūqı̄ya order?

    <p>Burhān ad-Dı̄n Ibrāhı̄m Dasūqı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was appointed as a professor at Niz.āmı̄ya madrasa in Baghdad by Niz.ām al-Mulk?

    <p>Abū H.āmid al-Ghazālı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Bahā’ ad-Dı̄n Zakarı̄ya Mult.ānı̄ began the Indian Suhrawardı̄ya.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    'Umar Khayyām is known for his works on legal scholarship.

    <p>False</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What significant event began in 1096 and led to the establishment of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem?

    <p>The First Crusade</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of writing is Fakhr ad-Dı̄n ‘Irāqı̄ known for?

    <p>Divine Flashes (Lama‘āt)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Niz.ām al-Mulk exiled Khwāja ‘Abd Allāh Ans.ārı̄ from ________ in 1066.

    <p>Herat</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The term __________ refers to a group of mystics founded by Tapduq Emre in Anatolia.

    <p>Tapduq Emre</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Match the following scholars with their notable works:

    <p>Abū H.āmid al-Ghazālı̄ = The Revitalization of Religious Disciplines Ah.mad al-Ghazālı̄ = Sparks (Sawānih) Abū ’l-Majd Majdūd Sanā’ı̄ = The Hidden Garden of Ultimate Reality Ibn ‘Aqı̄l = Notable legal scholar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which prominent Persian poet is recognized for blending prose and poetry in their works?

    <p>Abū Qāsim Ah.mad as-Sam‘ānı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Qādirı̄ order was established by 'Abd al-Qādir al-Jı̄lānı̄.

    <p>True</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which Persian Ismā‘ı̄lı̄ leader was known for militant actions in the Middle East during the 12th century?

    <p>H.asan-i S.abāh.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The first Hanbalite madrasa was built by ________ in the 12th century.

    <p>Al-Mukharrimı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Who was the famous Sufi poet that faced persecution in Baghdad for his views on sainthood?

    <p>‘Ayn al-Qud.āt al-Hamadhānı̄</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Early Sufis

    • 923/311: Abū Ja‘far at.-T.abarı̄, a great historiographer and scholar of the Quran.

    • 931/319: Ibn Masarra, an Iberian author, philosopher, ascetic, and leader of early Sufi school of Cordoba.

    • c. 932/320: Abū Bakr Muh.ammad al-Wāsit.ı̄, a Baghdad contemporary of H.allāj.

    • 934/322: Abū Bakr al-Kattānı̄, an early member of the Baghdad school. Abū ‘Alı̄ Ah.mad ar-Rūdhbārı̄, a mystic of the Shāfi‘ı̄ School of Law.

    • 935/323: Al-Ash‘arı̄, a leading theologian who introduced elements of Mu’tazilite methodology into mainstream theology.

    • c. 945/333–4: Shiblı̄, an ‘Irāqı̄ Sufi and disciple of Junayd.

    • 949-1022: Simeon the New Theologian, a major Byzantine author on deification and mystical experience.

    • c. 950/338–9: Al-Fārābı̄, a major Islamic philosopher of Turkic descent.

    • 959/348: Ja‘far al-Khuldı̄, an associate of Junayd in Baghdad.

    • 965/354 or 976/366: ‘Abd al-Jabbār an-Niffarı̄, an enigmatic ‘Irāqı̄ author of Book of Mystical Sayings and Mystical Adresses.

    • 965/354: Mutanabbı̄, a great Arab H.amdānid court panegyrist.

    • 969/358–1171/566: The Fāt.imid dynasty rules the central Middle East from their newly founded capital of Cairo.

    • 973/362: The Azhar mosque was founded in Cairo, becoming the center of Shı̄‘ı̄ intellectual life under Fāt.imid rule.

    • 977/367: Abū ’l-Qāsim Ibrāhı̄m an-Nas.rābādhı̄, a disciple of Shiblı̄.

    • 982/371: Ibn Khafı̄f, a major mystic of Shiraz, age of c. 100. Abū ’l-H.usayn al-H.us.rı̄, an ascetic of Basra.

    • 988/378: Abū Nas.r as-Sarrāj, a theorist of Khurasan and author of the influential manual, Book of Light Flashes.

    • 990/380: Bishr Yā-Sı̄n, shaykh of Abū Sa‘ı̄d ibn Abı̄ ’l-Khayr.

    • 990/380 or 994/384: Abū Bakr Muh.ammad al-Kalābādhı̄, a historian and theorist of Sufism from Central Asia, who wrote Exploration of Sufi Teachings.

    • 995/385: Ibn an-Nadı̄m, wrote the Fihrist (a major biographical dictionary) in which he mentions two of Dhū ’n-Nūn’s works as alchemical writings. He is negative on H.allāj but offers a comprehensive listing of works.

    • 996/386: Abū T.ālib al-Makkı̄, author of the manual, Sustenance of Hearts.

    • 997/387 or 1023/414: Abū ’l-Fad.l Muh.ammad ibn H.asan Sarakhsı̄, a Central Asian Khurāsānı̄ shaykh and teacher of Abū Sa‘ı̄d ibn Abı̄ ’l-Khayr.

    • c. 1000/391: Bābā T.āhir ‘Uryān, author of early Persian Sufi quatrains.

    • c. 1010/400–401: Firdawsı̄ finishes the Persian national epic The Book of Kings, the first major landmark of “Islamicate” Persian literature.

    • 1013/404: Al-Bāqillānı̄, a jurist and major systematizer of Ash‘arite theology.

    • c. 1021/412: Abū ‘Ali ad-Daqqāq, mentor of Qushayrı̄.

    • 1021/412: ‘Abd ar-Rah.mān as-Sulamı̄, an exegete and hagiographer from Nı̄shı̄pūr, and disciple of Nas.rābādhı̄.

    • 1030/421: Mah.mūd of Ghazni, ruler of Afghanistan, conqueror of northwestern India.

    • 1033/425: Abū ’l-H.asan ‘Alı̄ al-Kharaqānı̄, a Persian mystic and shaykh of Ans.ārı̄. Abū Ish.āq Ibrāhı̄m al-Kāzarūnı̄, a Persian mystic and eponymous founder of Kāzarūnı̄ya.

    • 1037/428: Abū ‘Ali ibn Sı̄nā (Avicenna), a major Muslim philosopher from Central Asia, author of three “visionary recitals” and Book of the Ascension.

    • 1038/430: Abū Nu‘aym Al-Is.fahānı̄, known for his famous hagiographic work Ornament of the Friends of God, completed 1031/422.

    • 1048/439–40: Abū Rayh.ān al-Birūnı̄, a scholar of Indian philosophy and life.

    • 1049/440–1: Abū Sa‘ı̄d ibn Abı̄ ’l-Khayr, a saintly poet of Khurasan.

    • 1057/451: Abū ’l-‘Alā’ al-Ma‘arrı̄, famed Syrian Arabic philosopher/poet.

    • 1064/456: Ibn H.azm, an Iberian politician, lawyer, and religious polemicist.

    • c. 1072/465: ‘Alı̄ ibn ‘Uthmān Dātā Ganj Bakhsh Hujwı̄rı̄, a H.anafı̄ scholar and author of the manual Revelation of Realities Veiled.

    • 1074/466–7: Abū ’l-Qāsim ‘Abd al-Karı̄m al-Qushayrı̄, a Central Asian manualist and hagiographer who wrote Treatise (on Sufism), a k.a The Letter to the Sufis; he reconciled Sufism with Sunnı̄ authorities.

    • 1083/476: ‘Abd al-Mālik al-Juwaynı̄, a central Asian theologian, teacher of Abū H.āmid al-Ghazālı̄.

    • 1089/481: Khwāja ‘Abd Allāh Ans.ārı̄, a Khurāsānı̄ scholar, author of Hundred Fields and Dwelling Places of the Wayfarers.

    • 1092/485: Niz.ām al-mulk, the Saljūqid grand vizier who exiled Ans.ārı̄ from Herat in 1066 and appointed Ghazālı̄ professor at the Niz.āmı̄ya madrasa in Baghdad.

    • 1096/490: The First Crusade leads to the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099–1189).

    • 12th/6th century: Al-Mukharrimı̄, who built the first Hanbalite madrasa.

    • 1111/505: Abū H.āmid al-Ghazālı̄, a professor in Baghdad and author of The Revitalization of Religious Disciplines.

    • 1119/512–3: Ibn ‘Aqı̄l, a Hanbalite legal scholar.

    • 1124/518: H.asan-i S.abāh., a Persian Ismā‘ı̄lı̄ leader, of the militant branch of Shı̄‘a which gained a firm footing in parts of the Middle East.

    • 1126/520: Ah.mad al-Ghazālı̄, younger brother of Abū H.āmid al-Ghazālı̄ and author of Sparks (Sawānih.). Rashid ad-Dı̄n Maybudı̄, a Persian scholar, exegete, and mystic, and student of Ans.ārı̄.

    • 1131/525: Abū ’l-Majd Majdūd Sanā’ı̄, a Persian Sufi poet who wrote the classic didactic work entitled The Hidden Garden of Ultimate Reality.

    • 1131/526: ‘Ayn al-Qud.āt al-Hamadhānı̄, a disciple of Ah.mad al-Ghazālı̄, who was persecuted in Baghdad and executed on the charge of aberrant views of sainthood and eschatology.

    • 1132/526: “Umar Khayyām, a Persian poet known for his use of the image of the potter making beautiful things and then destroying them, implying God’s role with the mystic, destroying the outward forms.

    • 1140/534: Abū Qāsim Ah.mad as-Sam‘ānı̄, a Persian mystical poet who wrote Refreshment of Spirits, innovative for its blend of prose and poetry. Yūsuf Hamadhānı̄, a Persian shaykh influential in Central Asia.

    • 1141/536: Ah.mad of Jām, author of several Persian works on spirituality. Ibn al-‘Arı̄f, an Iberian author of The Beauties of Mystical Sessions.

    • 1153/548: Bernard of Clairvaux, reformer of Christian monasticism.

    • 1157/556: Bahrāmshāh ibn Mas‘ūd of Ghazni, the sultan to whom Sanā’ı̄ dedicated the 10th chapter of his Hidden Garden of Ultimate Reality.

    • 1166/561: ‘Abd al-Qādir al-Jı̄lānı̄, a famous Sufi preacher and eponym of the Qādirı̄ order, considered the first formal Sufi order.

    • 1168/563–4: Abū ’n-Najı̄b ‘Abd al-Qāhir as-Suhrawardı̄, a Persian shaykh, author, and scholar who taught Ah.mad al-Ghazālı̄, Najm ad-Dı̄n Kubrā, and Abū H.afs.‘Umar as-Suhrawardı̄. Najm ad-Dı̄n Kubrā, a Central Asian founder of the Kubrāwı̄ya.

    • 1221/618: Farı̄d ad-Dı̄n ‘At.t.ār, a poet and hagiographer from Nishapur, author of The Conference of the Birds (Mant.iq at.-t.ayr) and other works.

    • c. 1222/619: Jamāl ad-Dı̄n as-Sāwı̄, who spread the Qalandarı̄ya to the central Middle East.

    • c. 1225/622: Ah.mad Yasawı̄, a Central Asian founder of the Yasawı̄ya.

    • 1225/622: An-Nās.ir, the ‘Abbāsid caliph who wanted to revive the stagnant spiritual life of Islam and unite Islamic rulers against the Mongol threat.

    • 1226/623: Francis of Assisi, an Italian Christian mystic, founder of the Franciscans.

    • 1227/626–7: Genghis Khan, the infamous Mongol conqueror who ruled much of Central Asia and whose descendants went on to dominate much of the Middle East through the 15th/9th century.

    • 1228/625: ‘Abd as-Salām ibn Mashı̄sh, a Moroccan ascetic influential in the thought and practice of the Shādhilı̄ya.

    • 1231/628: Bahā’ ad-Dı̄n Walad, a Central Asian shaykh who fled westward with his family ahead of Genghis Khan’s invasion; father of Rūmı̄.

    • 1234/631–2: Abū H.afs.‘Umar as-Suhrawardı̄, a Persian-born scholar, theorist, and preacher who wrote The Benefits of Intimate Knowledge (Awārif al-ma‘ārif ).

    • 1235/632: Ibn-al-Fārid., an Egyptian Arabic mystical poet who wrote Wine ode and Greater T-Rhyming Ode.

    • 1235/632–3: Qut.b ad-Dı̄n Bakhtı̄yār Kākı̄, a saint revered by Iltutmish, the first king of the Slave dynasty of Delhi.

    • 1236/633: Mu‘ı̄n ad-Dı̄n Chishtı̄, an Indian shaykh and major figure of early history of the Chishtı̄ya order. ‘Alā’ad-Dı̄n Kaykobad, the Saljuqid Sultan of Rūm, a patron of scholars who built a magnificent mosque in Konya, where Rūmı̄’s family settled.

    • 1238/635: Awh.ād ad-Dı̄n Kirmānı̄, a Persian poet known for quatrains and acquaintance of Ibn al-‘Arabı̄.

    • 1240/637–8: Muh.yı̄ ad-Dı̄n ibn al-‘Arabı̄, an Iberian-born mystical author who wrote Meccan Revelations and Bezels of Wisdom. Bābā Ilyās, a mystic from Khurasan active in Anatolia.

    • c. 1241/639: Burhān ad-Dı̄n Muh.aqqiq, teacher of Rūmı̄.

    • 1244/641–2: Jalāl ad-Dı̄n Tabrı̄zı̄, one of the first Suhrawardı̄s to go to India.

    • 1247/645: Shams ad-Dı̄n Tabrı̄zı̄, a dervish who was associated with Rūmı̄ and possibly the Kubrāwı̄ya, considered the inspiration for much of Rūmı̄’s lyric.

    • 1250/648–1517/923: The Mamlūk dynasty ruled much of the central Middle East from their capital at Cairo after stopping the Mongol advance at ‘Ayn Jalūt.

    • 1258: Baghdad fell to the Mongol forces.

    • 1264 - 1307: Shaykh Safi al-Din Ardabili, founder of the Safavid order in Ardabil, Azerbaijan. His tomb became an important pilgrimage site for Shias and served as a center of Shi'a learning.

    • 1319: Death of Shaykh Safi al-Din Ardabili

    • 1335: Accession of Sultan Abu Sa’id Bahadur Khan of the Ilkhanate , the last true ruler of the Ilkhanate. Marked the beginning of the decline of the Ilkhanate.

    • 1337 - 1501: The Golden Horde, one of the successor states of the Mongol Empire, ruled over the Pontic-Caspian steppe, and were heavily involved in the Crimean Khanate, which was a descendant state of the Golden Horde in the Crimea.

    • 1357: The Golden Horde had reached its peak of power and influence. That year, however, the Golden Horde was devastated by the Black Death. Its political power began to collapse after this devastating event, and they were slowly absorbed into other states.

    • 1380: The Golden Horde army led by Mamai suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of the Russian forces at the Battle of Kulikovo, a battle that is considered a turning point in the struggle between Russia and the Golden Horde.

    • 1380- 1382: The Golden Horde was overthrown after its final defeat at the Battle of Kulikovo.

    • 1382: The Golden Horde was effectively ended with the destruction of its capital, Sarkel, by the army of Amir Timur (Tamerlane).

    • 1380-1405: Amir Timur or Tamerlane , who was a Timurid emperor and one of the most successful conquerors in history who established a large empire in Persia and Central Asia.

    • 1394: Tamerlane was defeated by the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I at the Battle of Ankara.

    • 1405: Timur died on campaign and the Timurid empire slowly began to decline, although it continued to exist in Afghanistan and Persia for another 300 years.

    • 1445-1453: The Timurids were overthrown by the Uzbek ruler Abu’l-Khayr Khan.

    • 1453: During final assault on Constantinople (Istanbul) by the Ottoman Empire, the Ottomans used cannons cast at the Timurid foundry and gunpowder taken from Constantinople during the reign of the Timurid Sultan, Shah Rukh.

    • 1447 -1505: The Ottoman-Timurid Wars (1447-1505) were waged between the Ottoman Empire and the Timurids, which were part of a power struggle that continued for decades.

    • 1447-1507: In a period of consolidation, the Ottoman Empire was consolidating its power in Anatolia and the Balkans. It had also grown into a major power in the Mediterranean world.

    • 1501: Shah Ismail I founded the Safavid Empire, which expanded its power and influence from Tabriz to the borders of the Ottoman Empire and the Mughal Empire. This expansionist movement was one of the major factors that contributed to the Ottoman–Safavid wars of the 16th century.

    • 15th and 16th centuries: The Ottoman Empire experienced a major period of expansion, reaching a peak in power during the reign of the famous Ottoman Sultan Suleiman the Magnificent.

    • 1545: Shah Tahmasp I led the Safavid Empire to victory against the Ottoman Empire in the Battle of Çaldiran. This victory marked the beginning of a period of great strength and prosperity for the Safavid Empire.

    • 1553-1555: The Ottoman–Safavid War of 1553 – 1555 resulted in a stalemate with the Ottomans eventually signing the Treaty of Amasya with the Safavids.

    • 1578-1590: The Ottoman–Safavid War of 1578 – 1590 ended with the Ottomans winning the Battle of Battle of Chaldiran, but this victory was short-lived.

    • 1603-1618: The Ottoman–Safavid War of 1603 – 1618 ended with the Treaty of Nasuh Pasha, which restored the status quo that existed before the war. The Ottoman Empire won the war, but this victory was not decisive.

    • 1623-1639: The Ottoman–Safavid War of 1623 – 1639 ended with the Treaty of Zuhab, with the Ottomans gaining a significant victory in which they reconquered Baghdad and surrounding areas.

    • 1683: The Great Turkish War (1683–1699) was a war between the Ottoman Empire and the Holy League (the coalition of the Habsburg Monarchy, Poland, the Venetian Republic, and the Russian Empire).

    • 1700: The Ottoman Empire’s decline began and was marked by a series of reforms in the 19th century.

    • 1827-1829: The Ottoman Empire lost its war with Russia over Greece, which gained independence.

    • 1878: The Ottoman Empire lost land in the Balkans following its defeat in the Russo-Turkish War of 1877–1878.

    • 1890s: Turkey experienced a period of economic and political instability due to a serious economic crisis and internal rebellions.

    • 1908: The Young Turk Revolution forced the Ottoman Sultan to restore the Ottoman Constitution of 1876, which made the monarchy subservient to a Parliament elected by the people. For the first time, Turks, Armenians, Kurds, Arabs and other groups were represented in the government.

    • 1914: The Ottoman Empire joined the Central Powers in World War I.

    • 1915-1916: The Ottoman government attempted to eradicate the Armenian population during the Armenian Genocide.

    • 1919: After the end of World War I, the Ottoman Empire faced pressure from the Allied victors. To fight off Allied occupation of their territory, Turkey was forced to fight off incursions by Greece, Armenia, and France.

    • 1922: The Ottoman Empire ended with the abolition of the Empire’s parliament and the declaration of the Republic by Mustafa Kemal Atatürk. Atatürk’s Kemalist reforms eliminated the Ottoman legal system, the Ottoman calendar, the Ottoman court, and replaced them with new modern institutions. The reforms also removed the veil from women, introduced Latin alphabet for the Turkish language, and secularized the education system.

    • 1923: The Ottoman Empire was officially dismantled and the Republic of Turkey was proclaimed.

    Mongol Empire

    • 1227/626–7: Genghis Khan, the infamous Mongol conqueror who ruled much of Central Asia and whose descendants went on to dominate much of the Middle East through the 15th/9th century.

    • 1258: Baghdad fell to the Mongol forces.

    • 1264 - 1307: Shaykh Safi al-Din Ardabili, founder of the Safavid order in Ardabil, Azerbaijan. His tomb became an important pilgrimage site for Shias and served as a center of Shi'a learning.

    • 1319: Death of Shaykh Safi al-Din Ardabili

    • 1335: Accession of Sultan Abu Sa’id Bahadur Khan of the Ilkhanate , the last true ruler of the Ilkhanate. Marked the beginning of the decline of the Ilkhanate.

    • 1337 - 1501: The Golden Horde, one of the successor states of the Mongol Empire, ruled over the Pontic-Caspian steppe, and were heavily involved in the Crimean Khanate, which was a descendant state of the Golden Horde in the Crimea.

    • 1357: The Golden Horde had reached its peak of power and influence. That year, however, the Golden Horde was devastated by the Black Death. Its political power began to collapse after this devastating event, and they were slowly absorbed into other states.

    • 1380: The Golden Horde army led by Mamai suffered a decisive defeat at the hands of the Russian forces at the Battle of Kulikovo, a battle that is considered a turning point in the struggle between Russia and the Golden Horde.

    • 1380- 1382: The Golden Horde was overthrown after its final defeat at the Battle of Kulikovo.

    • 1382: The Golden Horde was effectively ended with the destruction of its capital, Sarkel, by the army of Amir Timur (Tamerlane).

    • 1380-1405: Amir Timur or Tamerlane , who was a Timurid emperor and one of the most successful conquerors in history who established a large empire in Persia and Central Asia.

    • 1394: Tamerlane was defeated by the Ottoman Sultan Bayezid I at the Battle of Ankara.

    • 1405: Timur died on campaign and the Timurid empire slowly began to decline, although it continued to exist in Afghanistan and Persia for another 300 years.

    • 1445-1453: The Timurids were overthrown by the Uzbek ruler Abu’l-Khayr Khan.

    • 1453: During final assault on Constantinople (Istanbul) by the Ottoman Empire, the Ottomans used cannons cast at the Timurid foundry and gunpowder taken from Constantinople during the reign of the Timurid Sultan, Shah Rukh.

    • 1447 -1505: The Ottoman-Timurid Wars (1447-1505) were waged between the Ottoman Empire and the Timurids, which were part of a power struggle that continued for decades.

    • 1447-1507: In a period of consolidation, the Ottoman Empire was consolidating its power in Anatolia and the Balkans. It had also grown into a major power in the Mediterranean world.

    • 1501: Shah Ismail I founded the Safavid Empire, which expanded its power and influence from Tabriz to the borders of the Ottoman Empire and the Mughal Empire. This expansionist movement was one of the major factors that contributed to the Ottoman–Safavid wars of the 16th century.

    Introduction to Sufism

    • The "A to Z of Sufism" book published in 2009 by the Scarecrow Press, Inc.
    • Sufism is a mystical movement within Islam, named after the woolen garments worn by early ascetics.
    • Sufi history spans 14 centuries and is marked by a variety of social, ritual, artistic, institutional, and political manifestations.
    • Sufi orders (tariqas) spread from the Middle East across North Africa and Asia, and eventually into Africa, South, and Southeast Asia.
    • Early Sufis focused on personal experiences. These experiences often included:
      • Intimate relationships with God
      • Miraculous powers
      • A journey of discovery guided by divine trust

    The Formative Period (Prophet's time to 339/950)

    • Early Sufis were individuals known for their outstanding piety.
    • Rābi‘a al-‘Adawiyya (717-801 C.E.) was an early Sufi mystic who emphasized loving God for God's sake. Her insights led to dramatic new developments in Sufi thought.
    • Dhū ’n-Nūn of Egypt, Bāyazı̄d of Bistam, and H.allāj of Baghdad were prominent figures in the development of Sufi thought, but their bold claims often alienated them from religious and political authorities.
    • H.allāj was executed for blasphemy, but Sufis see his execution as a result of his overwhelming intimacy with God.
    • Junayd (d. 910) and Muh.āsibı̄ (d. 857) offered a more theologically cautious approach to Sufism, sometimes called "sober" mysticism.
    • The formative period (Prophet's time to 339/950) focused on the development of a sensitivity to interior spiritual experience.

    The Period of Elucidation (339/950 to 494/1100)

    • The second period of Sufism (339/950 to 494/1100) is marked by the consolidation of common Sufi practices and terminology. This phase was characterized by the widespread use of "manuals" or compendiums of Sufi spirituality.

    Sufism Today

    • Sufism proved to be very resilient, surviving under colonialism and the Soviet era.
    • Sufi orders remain influential in various parts of the world.
    • Jalāl ad-Dı̄n Rūmı̄, a prominent Sufi poet, is one of the best-selling poets (in translation) in English today.

    Early Development of Sufism

    • Sufism has existed for over 1,200 years and has taken on various forms.
    • It was founded by various spiritual directors, who often disagreed on some points.
    • Despite disagreements, all shared the same ultimate goals and drew their inspiration from the Qur'an and the Prophet Muhammad.
    • The diversity of Sufism can be confusing for outsiders.

    Key Figures and Events

    • Hallaj (executed around 309/921), a Sufi mystic, was executed for declaring "I am the Truth," illustrating a controversial aspect of Sufism.
    • Junayd and Muh.āsibı̄ (both active around 3rd Century AH), offered a more cautious approach to Sufism, emphasizing sobriety and theological caution.
    • The period from the Prophet's time to around 339/950 is considered the formative period of Sufism, characterized by the development of interior spiritual experience.
    • The period from around 339/950 to 494/1100 is considered the period of elucidation or consolidation, characterized by the standardization of Sufi practices and terminology, as documented in classical spiritual manuals.

    Important Terms

    • Khānqāh: A Sufi religious house, often associated with teaching and spiritual practice.
    • Shaykh: A spiritual guide in Sufism.

    Notable Features of Sufism

    • Diversity: The vast spectrum of Sufi orders, practices, and beliefs.
    • Emphasis on Interior Experience: Sufism prioritizes inner spiritual development and understanding.
    • Arabic, Persian, and Other Languages: Sufism utilizes these languages, which can be unfamiliar to English speakers.
    • Theological Debates: The various schools of thought within Sufism, sometimes leading to disagreements.
    • Mysticism and Asceticism: Sufism often involves mystical experiences, spiritual practices, and renunciation.
    • Literary and Artistic Expressions: Sufism has been strongly tied to poetry, music, dance, and art.

    8th-9th Century Mystics

    • Buhlul ibn ‘Amr (~800/184): Known as a “wise fool” for his blunt social critique
    • Abū ‘Ali as-Sindı̄ (9th/2nd–3rd century): Possibly the mystical master of Bāyazı̄d al-Bist.āmı̄
    • Rih.āna al-Wālih.a: Saintly woman mystic
    • Rābi‘a ash-Shāmı̄ya: Syrian wife of Ahmad ibn Abi’l-H.awārı̄ and known for her constantly changing mystical states
    • Rābi‘a al-‘Adawı̄ya (~801/185): Female poet, ascetic, and mystic of Basra known as one of the first true Muslim mystics

    9th Century Caliphate and Scholars

    • Hārūn ar-Rashı̄d (809/193): ‘Abbāsid caliph, considered a “hero” in the book “1001 Nights”
    • **Shaqı̄q al-Balkhı̄ ** (810/194): Originated discussion of mystical “states”
    • Ma‘rūf al-Karkhı̄ (815/200): Leading Sufi in Baghdad
    • Muh.ammad ibn Idrı̄s ash-Shāfi‘ı̄ (820/205): H.adı̄th scholar and jurist, founder of the Sunni school of law prominent in the central Middle East and Indonesia
    • Ma’mūn (833/218): ‘Abbāsid caliph from 813-833. Considered a major sponsor of Arabic translations of Greek philosophical and scientific texts, preserving scholarship that influenced Western Thought and science in the later Middle Ages. He favored Mu‘tazilite rationalist thought
    • Bishr ibn al-H.ārith (841/227): Famous ascetic, known as “Al-H.āfı̄” or “The Barefoot”
    • Fāt.ima of Nishapur (849/235): Khurāsānı̄ mystic, wife of Ah.mad Khid.rūya, and acquaintance of Bāyazı̄d and Dhū ’n-Nūn.
    • Ah.mad ibn H.anbal (855/241): Founded the fourth Sunni school of law which is dominant in the Arabian Peninsula
    • Al-H.ārith ibn Asad al-Muh.āsibı̄ (857/243): ‘Irāqı̄ mystical teacher and theorist, author of “Observance of the Rights of God”
    • Thawbān ibn Ibrāhı̄m Dhū ’n-Nūn (860/245): Egyptian Sufi known for a unique interpretation of experiential knowledge
    • Abū Turāb an-Nakhshabı̄: Central Asian ascetic and follower of H.ātim al-As.amm
    • Al-Mutawakkil (861/246): ‘Abbāsid caliph who opposed Mu‘tazilite theology and restored Ibn H.anbal’s traditionalism to centrality

    13th-14th Century Mystics and Poets

    • ad-Dı̄n Sa‘dı̄: Persian wisdom author and poet
    • Sharaf ad-Dı̄n al-Bus.ı̄rı̄ (1296/695): Egyptian poet known for the “Burda” praise of the prophet’s mystical status.
    • Ibn ‘At.ā’ Allāh of Alexandria (1309/709): Egyptian author and hagiographer, member of Shādhilı̄ya, credited with writing “Book of Aphoristic Wisdom”
    • Sult.ān Walad (1312/712): Turkish poet and author, son of Rūmı̄, founder of Mawlawı̄ya
    • Ramon Lull (1316/716): Catalan scholar and mystic influenced by Sufi literature
    • Yūnus Emre (1321/721): Major Turkish Sufi poet
    • Shāh Abū ‘Alı̄ Qalandar of Pānı̄pāt (1324/724): Indian Sufi who gave up theological study for a life of asceticism.
    • Amı̄r Khusraw (1325/725): Best-known poet of early Muslim period in India, founder of Indo-Muslim musical tradition
    • Niz.ām ad-Dı̄n Awliyā’: Indian scholar and leader, propagator of Chishtı̄ya in India
    • Meister Eckhart (1327/728): German Dominican mystic influenced by Maimonides who emphasized the divine ineffability
    • Amı̄r H.usaynı̄ Harawı̄: Suhrawardı̄ mystic and author
    • Ibn Taymı̄ya (1328/729): Major medieval Hanbalı̄ theologian, critic of Sufism
    • ‘Abd ar-Razzāq al-Kāshānı̄: Author of an important lexicon of Sufi terminology
    • S.āfı̄ ad-Dı̄n Ardabı̄lı̄ (1334/735): Persian spiritual ancestor of the S.afawid order
    • Abū ’l-Mafākhı̄r Yah.yā Bākharzı̄: Kubrāwı̄ shaykh
    • ‘Alā’ ad-Dawla Simnānı̄: Persian mystic and author
    • H.asan Sijzı̄ Dihlawı̄: Chishtı̄ hagiographer.
    • Mah.mūd ash-Shabistarı̄ (1337/737): Persian author and poet who wrote “Rose Garden of Mystery” and “Treatise on (Mystical) Felicity”
    • Burhān ad-Dı̄n Gharı̄b (1337/738): Indian scholar and successor of Niz.ām ad-Dı̄n Awliyā’ in the Chishtı̄ order.
    • Ibn Qayyim al-Jawzı̄ya (1350/751): Major theologian, wrote “The Mysteries of Ritual Prayer” about God praising Himself through the mouth of a worshiper
    • D.iyā’ ad-Dı̄n an-Nakhshabı̄: Persian author and poet associated with Chishtı̄ya, author of “Book of the Parrot”
    • Muh.ammad T.ughlūq (1353/754): Powerful Indian ruler who forced many intellectuals/mystics to leave Delhi for the Deccan in 1327.
    • Nas.ı̄r ad-Dı̄n Mah.mūd Chirāgh-i Dihlı̄ (1356/757): Indian Chishtı̄ scholar and successor to Niz.ām ad-Dı̄n Awliyā’
    • D.iyā’ ad-Dı̄n Baranı̄ (1357/758): Indian historiographer who wrote about Niz.ām ad-Dı̄n and his influence in the Chishtı̄ya.
    • Sharaf ad-Dı̄n Manı̄rı̄ (1381/782): Wrote letters, Indian leader of Fir-dawsı̄ya
    • Jalāl ad-Dı̄n H.usayn al-Bukhārı̄ (1384/785): Prolific writer in all religious fields, settled in Ucch. Northeast of Multan.
    • Mı̄r Sayyid ‘Alı̄ Hamadhānı̄ (1385/787): Active Kubrāwı̄ founder in Kashmir
    • Muh.ammad Shams ad-Dı̄n H.āfiz (1389/791): Major Persian mystical poet
    • Khwāja Bahā’ ad-Dı̄n Naqshband (1389/791): Central Asian Sufi and founder of Naqshbandı̄ya, considered seventh khwāja in Abū Yūsuf’s line
    • Ibn ‘Abbād ar-Rundı̄ (1390/792): Ibero-Moroccan Shādhilı̄ spiritual leader, famed for letters
    • Bahā’ ad-Dı̄n Naqshband (1391/794): Central Asian shaykh-eponym
    • Fad.l Allāh Astarābādı̄ (1394/796-7): Founding leader of the H.urūfı̄ya tradition

    Late 14th and 15th Century Mystics and Scholars

    • Kaygusūz Abdāl: Turkish mystical author and poet, Bektāshı̄
    • Timūr Lang (1405/807-8): Founder of Timūrid dynasty and reputed ancestor of Babur who established the beginning of the Mughal dynasty over northwestern India in 1526. He and his line were major patrons of both the arts and Sufism
    • Ibn Khaldūn (1406/808-9): Major North African historian and philosopher of history whose introduction offers much information about Sufism
    • Muh.ammad Shı̄rı̄n Maghribı̄: Persian Kubrāwı̄ author and poet
    • ‘Imād ad-Dı̄n Nesı̄mı̄ (1417/820): H.urūfı̄ lyric poet inspired by H.allāj
    • Khwāja Muh.ammad Parsā: Early Naqshbandı̄ master
    • Sulaymān Çelebı̄: Major Turkish poet on the Prophet
    • Sayyid Muh.ammad al-H.usaynı̄ Gı̄sū Darāz (1422/825): South Indian scholar, disciple of Chirāgh-i Dihlı̄, author in Chishtı̄ya order
    • Sayyid Ashraf Jahāngı̄r Simnānı̄: Persian saint, theorist and teacher who lived in India and was associated with many orders (mainly Chishtı̄ya)
    • ‘Abd al-Karı̄m al-Jı̄lı̄: Mystic of Iraq, author of “The Perfect Person”
    • Shāh Ni‘mat Allāh Walı̄ (1431/834): Syrian-born author who founded Ni‘mat-Allāhı̄ya and studied the theology of Ibn al-‘Arabı̄
    • Muh.ammad Aq Shams ad-Dı̄n (1459/863): Mystic who influenced Mehmet the Conqueror
    • Abū ‘Abd Allāh al-Jazūlı̄ (~1465/869): Moroccan author of a popular Sufi prayer book on trust in God and the Messenger.
    • Eshrefoğlu Rūmı̄: Turkish mystical poet
    • Khwāja ‘Ubayd Allāh Ah.rār (1490/895): Central Asian Naqshbandı̄ shaykh
    • Abū ‘Abd Allāh Muh.ammad as-Sanūsı̄: Maghribı̄ author, scholar and ascetic
    • Mawlāna ‘Abd ar-Rah.mān Jāmı̄ (1492/897): Persian poet and hagiographer, Naqshbandı̄, author of “The Seven Thrones” and “Warm Breezes of Intimacy”
    • Ah.mad Zarrūq (1494/899): Moroccan mystical author
    • Balı̄m Sult.ān: Second master of the Bektāshı̄ order.

    16th Century Mystics and Rulers

    • S.afawid dynasty: Ruled most of Persia from 1501-1738. Shi‘ism became the official creed of Iran, and the rulers were sometimes called Sufi or Grand Sophi. This dynasty was a major patron of Sufism and the arts, and the dynasty ended with an Afghan invasion.
    • Mı̄r ‘Alı̄ Shı̄r Nawā’ı̄ (1501/906-7): Central Asian Naqshbandı̄ who wrote a Chagatay version of the Conference of the Birds. Considered the greatest representative of Chagatay Turkish literature.
    • H.amd Allāh H.amdı̄ (1503/909): Wrote a Turkish version of Zulaykhã’s love for Joseph
    • Jalāl ad-Dı̄n as-Suyūtı̄ (1505/911): Major religious scholar, exegete, and administrator of a large Shādhilı̄ khānqāh in Cairo
    • Shams ad-Dı̄n Muh.ammad Lāhijı̄ (1506/912): Persian poet and shaykh of Nūrbakhshı̄ya
    • ‘Alı̄ ibn Maymūn al-Fāsı̄ (1511/917): Spreads Shādhilı̄ya into Syria
    • Kabı̄r: Indian Muslim mystical poet influential in the beginnings of the Sikh tradition in connection with Gurū Nanak
    • H.ajji Muh.ammad: Wrote “The Book of Light”, an important Sufi work in Bengālı̄

    17th Century Mystics and Rulers

    • Khwāja Bāqı̄ Bi-’llāh: Afghan Naqshbandı̄ scholar and author, teacher of Ah.mad Sirhindı̄.
    • Akbar (1605/1014): Mogul emperor who tried to establish a religious eclecticism containing the best elements of all the religions he knew, frequented Sufi shaykhs
    • ‘Abd ar-Ra’ūf al-Munāwı̄: Egyptian hagiographer
    • Bahā’ ad-Dı̄n Āmilı̄: Persian Shı̄‘ı̄ Sufi poet
    • Ah.mad Sirhindı̄ (1624/1034): Naqshbandı̄ reformer
    • Jahāngı̄r (1627/1036-7): Mughal emperor, adorned Ajmer, Mu‘ı̄n ad-Dı̄n Chishtı̄’s city, with beautiful marble buildings.
    • Ah.mad Bābā: legal scholar influential on Sufism in Niger
    • Shams ad-Dı̄n as-Samat.rānı̄: Indonesian Sufi scholar involved in the wujūdı̄ controversy
    • Ismā‘ı̄l Rusı̄hı̄ Anqarāwı̄: Turkish mystic who wrote fine commentary on Rūmı̄’s Mathnawı̄
    • Mumtaz Mahal: Wife of Shāh Jahān who built the Tāj Mahal as a monumental tomb for her
    • Muh.ammad Ghawthı̄: Member of the Shat.t.arı̄ya order, composed a hagiography of 575 Indo-Muslim saints
    • Miyān Mı̄r: Nickname of Shaykh Muh.ammad Mı̄r of Sind, an Indian Qādirı̄ Sufi and spiritual counselor to several Mughal rulers.

    Early & Significant Figures in Sufism

    • 867/253: Sarı̄ “as-Saqat.ı̄,” Baghdad ascetic, known for controversial teachings on love.
    • 870/256: Al-Buhkārı̄, Central Asian scholar, compiled a collection of H.adı̄th that became one of the most important of the “Six” authoritative collections.
    • 872/258: Yah.yā ibn Mu‘ādh ar-Rāzı̄, Sufi preacher of Nishapur.
    • 873/259: H.unayn ibn Ish.āq, scholar under whom Greek translation reached its height. Al-Kindı̄, first great Arab philosopher.
    • 873/260: Twelfth Imām of the “Twelver Shı̄‘a” goes into “Lesser Concealment,” according to Shı̄‘ı̄ belief, he works as Lord of Time until his return.
    • 875/261: T.ayfūr ibn ‘Īsā Abū Yazı̄d (Bāyazı̄d) al-Bist.amı̄, Persian mystic known for ecstatic utterances.
    • c. 878/265: Abū H.afs.al-H.addād, mystic/ascetic of Nishapur.
    • 884/270–1: H.amdūn al-Qas.s.ār, Khurāsānı̄ ascetic and leader of Malāmatı̄ya.
    • 888/275: Ah.mad Ghulām Khalı̄l, brought charges against Sufis of Baghdad and Nūrı̄ in 885/272.
    • 896/283: ‘Alı̄ ibn ar-Rūmı̄, ‘Irāqı̄ poet who described Sufi ascetical practices at Basra. Sahl at-Tustarı̄, early Sufi exegete and theorist, influential figure in the Sālimı̄ya school of thought.
    • c. 898/285: Muh.ammad ibn ‘Alı̄ al-H.akı̄m at-Tirmidhı̄, Central Asian theorist.
    • 899/286: Abū Sa‘ı̄d al-Kharrāz, ‘Irāqı̄-born author of Book of Authenticity.
    • 904/291: Ibrāhı̄m al-Khawwās., itinerant ascetic from Iraq.
    • 907/295: Abū ’l-H.usayn an-Nūrı̄, Sufi in Baghdad, disciple of Sarı̄ “as-Saqat.ı̄” and author of The Stations of Hearts.
    • 909/296: Muh.ammad ibn Dā’ūd, son of the founder of the Z.āhirı̄ school of law, denounced H.allāj and incited other scholars against him. Composed a book on the ideal of chaste love, denying the possibility of divine-human mutual love.
    • 910/298: Junayd, author, legal scholar, mystic in Baghdad, considered the greatest of the “sober” mystics. Sumnūn ibn H.amza “Al-Muh.ibb,” early Baghdad Sufi, follower of Sarı̄ “as-Saqat.ı̄.” Abū ‘Uthmān al-H.ı̄rı̄, Central Asian ascetic.
    • 915/302–3: Ruwaym ibn Ah.mad, early Baghdad mystic, associate of Junayd.
    • c. 922/310: Abū ’l-‘Abbās ibn ‘At.ā’ killed, a supporter of H.allāj.
    • 923/311: Abū Ja‘far at.-T.abarı̄, great historiographer and Qur’ān commentator.
    • 931/319: Ibn Masarra, Iberian mystical author, philosopher, ascetic, and leader of an early Sufi school in Cordoba.
    • 932/320: Muh.ammad ibn ‘Alı̄ al-H.akı̄m at-Tirmidhı̄, Central Asian theorist. Abū Bakr Muh.ammad al-Wāsit.ı̄, Baghdad contemporary of H.allāj.
    • 934/322: Abū Bakr al-Kattānı̄, early member of the Baghdad school. Abū ‘Alı̄ Ah.mad ar-Rūdhbārı̄, mystic of Shāfi‘ı̄ School of Law.
    • 935/323: Al-Ash‘arı̄, leading theologian who introduced elements of Mu’tazilite methodology into mainstream theology.
    • 945/333–4: Shiblı̄, ‘Irāqı̄ Sufi and disciple of Junayd.
    • 949-1022: Simeon the New Theologian, major Byzantine author on deification and mystical experience.
    • 950/338–9: Al-Fārābı̄, major Islamic philosopher of Turkic descent.
    • 959/348: Ja‘far al-Khuldı̄, associate of Junayd in Baghdad.
    • 965/354 or 976/366: ‘Abd al-Jabbār an-Niffarı̄, enigmatic ‘Irāqı̄ author of Book of Mystical Sayings and Mystical Adresses.
    • 965/354: Mutanabbı̄, great Arab H.amdānid court panegyrist.
    • 969/358–1171/566: Fāt.imid dynasty rules central Middle East from newly founded capital of Cairo.
    • 973/362: Azhar mosque founded in Cairo, becomes the center of Shı̄‘ı̄ intellectual life under Fāt.imid rule.
    • 977/367: Abū ’l-Qāsim Ibrāhı̄m an-Nas.rābādhı̄, disciple of Shiblı̄.
    • 982/371: Ibn Khafı̄f, major mystic of Shiraz. Abū ’l-H.usayn al-H.us.rı̄, ascetic of Basra.
    • 988/378: Abū Nas.r as-Sarrāj, theorist of Khurasan and author of the influential manual, Book of Light Flashes.
    • 990/380: Bishr Yā-Sı̄n, shaykh of Abū Sa‘ı̄d ibn Abı̄ ’l-Khayr. Abū Bakr Muh.ammad al-Kalābādhı̄, historian, and theorist of Sufism from Central Asia, wrote Exploration of Sufi Teachings.
    • 995/385: Ibn an-Nadı̄m, wrote the Fihrist (major biographical dictionary), mentioning two of Dhū ’n-Nūn’s works as alchemical writings.
    • 996/386: Abū T.ālib al-Makkı̄, author of the manual, Sustenance of Hearts.
    • 997/387 or 1023/414: Abū ’l-Fad.l Muh.ammad ibn H.asan Sarakhsı̄, Central Asian Khurāsānı̄ shaykh and teacher of Abū Sa‘ı̄d ibn Abı̄ ’l-Khayr.
    • c. 1000/391: Bābā T.āhir ‘Uryān, author of early Persian Sufi quatrains.

    10th/3rd–4th century: Development in Sufi Literature

    • Period of major developments in Sufi literature.
    • Early manuals of spirituality were authored by key figures: Makkı̄, Kālābādhı̄, and Sarrāj.
    • These manuals aimed to defend Sufism against criticism from religious officialdom.

    Sufi Teachings & Definitions

    • Sufism: Associated with ascetical practice, manifest through material poverty, represented by the term faqı̄r/darwı̄sh.
    • Tas.awwuf: Often defined as “Sufism,” focused on inner attitudes over outer practices, linked to the Arabic word for “purity,” s.afā’, indicating elite spiritual and moral development.

    Notable Figures and Events (c. 11th - 16th Centuries)

    • 1083/476 - ‘Abd al-Mālik al-Juwaynı̄, a central Asian theologian and teacher of Abū H.āmid al-Ghazālı̄, contributes to the reconciliation of Sufism with Sunnı̄ authorities.

    • 1089/481 - Khwāja ‘Abd Allāh Ans.ārı̄ a Khurāsānı̄ scholar known for his works "Hundred Fields" and "Dwelling Places of the Wayfarers."

    • 1092/485 - Niz.ām al-mulk, the Saljūqid grand vizier, exiled Ans.ārı̄ from Herat in 1066 and appointed Ghazālı̄ professor at the Niz.āmı̄ya madrasa in Baghdad.

    • 1096/490 - The First Crusade leads to the establishment of the Latin Kingdom of Jerusalem (1099–1189).

    • 1111/505 - Abū H.āmid al-Ghazālı̄ , a renowned professor in Baghdad, authored “The Revitalization of Religious Disciplines.”

    • 1119/512–3 - Ibn ‘Aqı̄l, known as a Hanbalite legal scholar.

    • 1124/518 - H.asan-i S.abāh., a Persian Ismā‘ı̄lı̄ leader, led a militant branch of Shı̄‘a that gained influence in parts of the Middle East.

    • 1126/520 - Ah.mad al-Ghazālı̄, the younger brother of Abū H.āmid al-Ghazālı̄, is known for his book “Sparks (Sawānih.).”

    • 1131/525 - Abū ’l-Majd Majdūd Sanā’ı̄ a Persian Sufi poet wrote “The Hidden Garden of Ultimate Reality.”

    • 1131/526 - ''‘Ayn al-Qud.āt al-Hamadhānı̄'', a disciple of Ah.mad al-Ghazālı̄, faced persecution in Baghdad and was executed for his views on sainthood and eschatology.

    • 1132/526 - ''Umar Khayyām'', a Persian poet, incorporates the image of a potter creating beautiful things and then destroying them, linking this to God's role with the mystic, implying the destruction of outward forms.

    • 1140/534 - Abū Qāsim Ah.mad as-Sam‘ānı̄, a Persian mystical poet, wrote “Refreshment of Spirits,” known for its innovative blend of prose and poetry. Yūsuf Hamadhānı̄, a Persian shaykh, had significant influence in Central Asia.

    • 1141/536 - Ah.mad of Jām authored several Persian works on spirituality. Ibn al-‘Arı̄f, an Iberian author, wrote "The Beauties of Mystical Sessions."

    • 1153/548 - Bernard of Clairvaux, a prominent reformer of Christian monasticism.

    • 1157/556 - Bahrāmshāh ibn Mas‘ūd of Ghazni, a sultan to whom Sanā’ı̄ dedicated the 10th chapter of his “Hidden Garden of Ultimate Reality.”

    • 1166/561 - ‘Abd al-Qādir al-Jı̄lānı̄, a renowned Sufi preacher and the founder of the Qādirı̄ order, which is considered the first formal Sufi order.

    • 1168/563–4 - Abū ’n-Najı̄b ‘Abd al-Qāhir as-Suhrawardı̄, a Persian shaykh, author, and scholar, taught Ah.mad al-Ghazālı̄, Najm ad-Dı̄n Kubrā and Abū H.afs.‘Umar as-Suhrawardı̄.

    • 1252/649 - Sa‘d ad-Dı̄n H.ammūya, a Khurāsānı̄ Shāf‘ı̄ scholar.

    • 1256/654 - Najm ad-Dı̄n Dāyā Rāzı̄, a Persian Kubrāwı̄ author and exegete, wrote “Path of the Godservants to the Starting Point and the Return (Mirs.ād al-‘ibād).

    • 1258/657 - Abū ’l-H.asan ash-Shādhilı̄, a Moroccan mystic, "Friend of God," and founder of the Shādhilı̄ya order. S.alāh.ad-Dı̄n Zarkūb, a mystical goldsmith, had a significant influence on Rūmı̄; his daughter became Sult.ān Walad’s wife.

    • 1261/659 - Sayf ad-Dı̄n Bākharzı̄, a Central Asian pupil of Najm ad-Dı̄n Kubrā. In this year, Latin rule of Constantinople was replaced by restored Byzantine rule.

    • 1262/661 - Bahā’ ad-Dı̄n Zakarı̄ya Mult.ānı̄, founded the Indian Suhrawardı̄ya. Lāl Shāhbāz qalandar, an Indian dervish of Suhrawardı̄ya.

    • 1265/664 - Farı̄d ad-Dı̄n Ganj-i Shakar, also known as Bābā Farı̄d, an Indian Chishtı̄ shaykh and teacher of Niz.ām ad-Dı̄n Awliyā’.

    • c. 1270–1/669 - H.ājjı̄ Bektāsh Walı̄, a Khurāsānı̄ dervish, is the namesake of the Bektāshı̄ya order.

    • 1270/669 - Ibn Sab‘ı̄n, an Iberian Sufi and philosopher.

    • 1273/672 - Mawlānā Jalāl ad-Dı̄n Balkhı̄ Rūmı̄, a Persian mystical poet and author of "Spiritual Couplets" and other works. Known as the original "Whirling Dervish," he inspired the Mawlawı̄ya order.

    • 1274/672–3 - Qād.ı̄ H.amı̄d ad-Dı̄n Nāgawrı̄, an Indian Suhrawardı̄ scholar. S.adr ad-Dı̄n al-Qūnawı̄, an Anatolian scholar, stepson and disciple of Ibn al‘Arabı̄, wrote a commentary on Ibn al‘Arabı̄’s “Bezels of Wisdom”. Thomas Aquinas and Bonaventure, major Christian mystics and theologians, were members of the Dominican and Franciscan orders, respectively.

    • 1276/675 - Sayyid Ah.mad al-Badawı̄, an Egyptian dervish of the Rifā‘ı̄ya order.

    • 1277/675–6 - Mu‘ı̄n ad-Dı̄n Parwane, a minister of the Saljūqid dynasty of Konya, was a major patron of Rūmı̄.

    • 1278/677 - Burhān ad-Dı̄n Ibrāhı̄m Dasūqı̄, an Egyptian Sufi poet who founded the Dasūqı̄ya order.

    • 1282/680 - ‘Azı̄z ad-Dı̄n Nasafı̄, a Central Asian Shı̄‘ı̄ Sufi theorist and shaykh of the Kubrāwı̄ya.

    • 1284/683 - H.usām ad-Dı̄n Çelebı̄, a disciple of Rūmı̄ and the third leader of the Mawlawı̄ya.

    • 1287/686 - Abū ’l-‘Abbās al-Mursı̄, the successor of Abū ‘l-H.asan ash-Shādhilı̄.

    • 1289/688 - Fakhr ad-Dı̄n ‘Irāqı̄, a Persian poet associated with both Rūmı̄ and Ibn al‘Arabı̄, is known for his “Divine Flashes (Lama‘āt).

    • Late 13th/7th century - Tapduq Emre, founded a group of mystics in Anatolia.

    • 1292/692 - Mus.lih.‘Abd al-Karı̄m al-Jı̄lı̄, a mystic of Iraq, authored “The Perfect Person.”

    • 1431/834 - Shāh Ni‘mat Allāh Walı̄, a Syrian-born author who founded the Ni‘mat-Allāhı̄ya order and studied the theology of Ibn al-‘Arabı̄.

    • 1453/857 - The fall of Constantinople to the Ottoman Turkish Sultan Mehmet I the Conqueror marks a continuation of the empire's dramatic expansion.

    • 1459/863 - Muh.ammad Aq Shams ad-Dı̄n, a mystic who influenced Mehmet the Conqueror.

    • c. 1465/869 - Abū ‘Abd Allāh al-Jazūlı̄, a Moroccan author of a popular Sufi prayer book focused on trust in God and the Messenger.

    • c. 1470/874 - Eshrefoğlu Rūmı̄, a Turkish mystical poet.

    • 1490/895 - Khwāja ‘Ubayd Allāh Ah.rār, a Central Asian Naqshbandı̄ shaykh. Abū ‘Abd Allāh Muh.ammad as-Sanūsı̄, a Maghribı̄ author, scholar, and ascetic.

    • 1492/897 - Mawlāna ‘Abd ar-Rah.mān Jāmı̄, a Persian poet and hagiographer, Naqshbandı̄, authored “The Seven Thrones” and "Warm Breezes of Intimacy."

    • 1492/898 - Muslim rule in Spain ends with the expulsion of the Nas.rid dynasty from Granada.

    • 1494/899 - Ah.mad Zarrūq, a Moroccan mystical author.

    • 15th/9th–16th/10th century - The period of the Walı̄ Songo, "nine saints" of Indonesia. Balı̄m Sult.ān, the second master of the Bektāshı̄ order.

    • 1501/906–1738/1151 - The S.afawid dynasty ruled most of Persia. Shāh Ismā‘ı̄l's rise to power in 1501 marked the dynasty's beginning. Shi‘ism became Iran's official creed, and the S.afawid rulers were sometimes referred to as Sufi or Grand Sophi. The dynasty was a major patron of Sufism and the arts and ended with an Afghan invasion.

    • 1501/906–7 - Mı̄r ‘Alı̄ Shı̄r Nawā’ı̄, a Central Asian Naqshbandı̄ who wrote a Chagatay version of "The Conference of the Birds," considered a leading figure of Chagatay Turkish literature. He was also a talented artist.

    • 1503/909 - H.amd Allāh H.amdı̄, wrote a Turkish version of "Zulaykhã’s love for Joseph," symbolizing the captivating power of love.

    • 1505/911 - Jalāl ad-Dı̄n as-Suyūtı̄, a renowned religious scholar, exegete, and administrator of a large Shādhilı̄ khānqāh in Cairo.

    • 1506/912 - Shams ad-Dı̄n Muh.ammad Lāhijı̄, a Persian poet and shaykh of the Nūrbakhshı̄ya.

    • 1511/917 - ‘Alı̄ ibn Maymūn al-Fāsı̄ spread the Shādhilı̄ya into Syria.

    • 1518/924 - Kabı̄r, an Indian Muslim mystical poet who had a significant influence on the early development of the Sikh tradition in connection with Gurū Nanak. The Hindu Majapahit kingdom in Java was overthrown by Muslim rule. H.ajji Muh.ammad authored “The Book of Light”, an important Sufi work in Bengālı̄.

    • 1603/1012 - Khwāja Bāqı̄ Bi-’llāh, an Afghan Naqshbandı̄ scholar and author, taught Ah.mad Sirhindı̄.

    • 1605/1014 - Akbar, the Mogul emperor and Babur’s grandson, attempted to create a religious eclecticism that incorporated the best elements of all the religions he knew. He frequented Sufi shaykhs.

    • 1621/1031 - ‘Abd ar-Ra’ūf al-Munāwı̄, an Egyptian hagiographer. Bahā’ ad-Dı̄n Āmilı̄, a Persian Shı̄‘ı̄ Sufi poet.

    • 1624/1034 - Ah.mad Sirhindı̄, a Naqshbandı̄ reformer.

    • 1627/1036–7 - Jahāngı̄r, the Mughal emperor, adorned Ajmer, the city of Mu‘ı̄n ad-Dı̄n Chishtı̄, with beautiful marble buildings. Ah.mad Bābā, a legal scholar, was influential on Sufism in Niger.

    • 1630/1039 - Shams ad-Dı̄n as-Samat.rānı̄, also known as Shams ad-Dı̄n of Pasai, an Indonesian Sufi scholar involved in the wujūdı̄ controversy.

    • 1631/1040–1 - Ismā‘ı̄l Rusı̄hı̄ Anqarāwı̄, a Turkish mystic who wrote a notable commentary on Rūmı̄’s "Mathnawı̄". Mumtaz Mahal, the wife of Shāh Jahān, who commissioned the Tāj Mahal as a monumental tomb for her.

    • 1633/1042–3 - Muh.ammad Ghawthı̄, a member of the Shat.t.arı̄ya order, composed a hagiography of 575 Indo-Muslim saints.

    • 1635/1044–5 - Miyān Mı̄r, the nickname of Shaykh Muh.ammad Mı̄r of Sind, was an Indian Qādirı̄ Sufi and spiritual counselor to certain Mughal rulers.

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    Test your knowledge on prominent Islamic scholars, their significant works, and influential mystics in Islamic history. This quiz covers a range of topics from theology to poetry, exploring key figures and texts that shaped Islamic thought. See how well you know the contributions of these intellectuals.

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