Islamic Scholars and their Contributions in Science and Mathematics

Renaissance Period (15th-17th Century)

• The Renaissance period marked the rebirth of preparation for 17th-century developments and achievements in science.
• Johannes Gutenberg introduced the metal movable type printing press.
• Isaac Newton made the first reflecting telescope.
• The musket was developed in Spain in the 1500s.
• Nicolaus Copernicus presented the heliocentric theory, stating that the Earth is not the center of the solar system, but the Sun.
• Galileo Galilei improved the telescope, invented the thermometer in 1593, and found support for a heliocentric solar system.

Industrial Revolution (18th Century)

• The Industrial Revolution transformed production methods from manual to machines.
• James Watt refined the steam engine, starting the revolution.
• Robert Fulton created the steamboat using one of Watt's engines.
• Thomas Edison invented the light bulb.
• George Stephenson developed the first steam-powered locomotive.

19th Century Developments

• The 19th century saw the rise of modern industry.
• Science and technology advancements were evident in communications, transportation, and electricity.
• Samuel Morse developed the telegraph and Morse Code.
• Alexander Graham Bell invented the telephone.
• Alexander Bain invented facsimile.
• Charles Wheatstone created the microphone.
• William Burt invented the typewriter and typographer.
• John Tyndall demonstrated the principles of fiber optics.
• Guglielmo Marconi proved the feasibility of radio communication.
• Jean Lenoir invented the internal combustion engine.
• Count Alessandro Volta invented the battery.
• William Sturgeon invented the electromagnet.
• Michael Faraday invented the dynamo.
• Charles Babbage invented the mechanical calculator.
• John Walker invented modern matches.
• Hamilton-Smith patented the rotary washing machine.
• Nikola Tesla invented the A.C. motor and transformer.
• Louis Pasteur invented the process of pasteurization.
• Alfred Nobel invented dynamite.
• Elisha Otis introduced the first safety elevator.
• Jesse Reno invented the escalator.

Contributions of Muslim Scientists

• Al-Battani improved the measurement of the Earth's axis to be precise.
• Physicist Ibn al-Haytham (Alhazen) is considered the father of modern optics.
• Al-Kindi applied quantifying and mathematics in medicine and pharmacology in his work "De Gradibus."
• Al-Khwarizmi gave his name to the algorithm's concept, and the term algebra derived from his written work Al-Jabr.

Middle Ages

• The Crisis of the Late Middle Ages ensued, causing a decline in population for a century.
• The Black Death of 1348 killed a third of Europe's population, leading to recurrences of the epidemic and other disasters.