Islam and the West: Historical Perceptions

Islam and the West: Perceptions of Islam

• In the 8th and 9th centuries, Islam spread to Europe, leading to the coexistence of Muslim and Christian Empires.
• The Christian church viewed Islam as a threat due to differing interpretations of the same God.
• The Umayyads, based in Damascus, spread Islam into Africa and Spain, crossing the Pyrenees into southern France.
• The Battle of Poitiers occurred in 732.
• The 12th century Crusades marked the beginning of negative discourse, despite continued coexistence and exchange of ideas.
• The Quran was translated into Latin, but the translation was inaccurate.
• In the 15th century, the expansion of the Ottoman Empire into Europe led to Islam being perceived as a threat once again.
• During the 18th and 19th centuries, colonialism resulted in imperial expansion into the Muslim world.
• The 20th and 21st centuries saw migration from Muslim countries, establishing a presence of French Muslims on French soil.
• Muslim merchants played a role in bringing Islam to the West.

Colonization

• Colonization was justified by creating a distinction between Muslims and non-Muslims, leading to "othering."
• Old narratives were revived, such as Charles Martel defeating a Muslim raiding party at Poitiers.
• Jules Ferry stated that superior races have a right and duty to civilize inferior races, which was seen as a generous, grand, and sincere civilizing duty for European nations.

Perceptions of Muslims

• The West created binary oppositions to "other" the Orient, reinforcing its dominance by portraying the Orient as barbaric and inferior, thus defining Western identity as superior.
• Generalizations led to the Orient being described as a monolith.
• Long-term effects of this perception included the fear of a "Grand Replacement," suggesting that by 2050, Muslims would outnumber non-Muslims in France, leading to fears of an Islamic republic.
• Far-right politicians like Eric Zemmour have stoked this fear, despite the inaccuracy of such claims given France's "colorblind" model.
• The fear of foreigners stigmatizes Muslims, especially Muslim women.
• Challenging this perception involves unlearning what is presented as "scholarship," deconstructing stereotypes, using history to unlearn and relearn, and distinguishing between hypotheses and facts.

Constructing Muslims in France

• Discursive practice involves the production of knowledge through language, where power, not facts, makes the discourse true.
• There is an emphasis on assimilation rather than integration, requiring Muslims to abandon their cultural values to fit into Western society.
• "The Muslim question" and public discourse treat Muslims as an outside group with conflicting values.

A Case of Selective Memory

• Selective memory focuses on confrontation rather than alliances or peaceful cohabitation between Muslims and the West.
• A short memory speaks of today but ignores the past, disregarding the time France took over Muslim countries.
• The narrative is framed by the elite, with the West defining the Orient instead of the Orient defining itself.

Knowing the Oriental

• Knowledge and power are deeply interconnected.
• Knowledge about the Orient is shaped by Western colonial interests and is not neutral.
• This reinforces the West's dominance over the Orient and shapes how each entity sees itself.
• Napoleon's Egypt expedition combined military conquest with an effort to study Egypt, using this "knowledge" as a tool of power to justify Western dominance over Egypt.
• Orientalist discourse provides the ideological foundation for colonialism.
• Terms like the West and Orientalism create binary oppositions, allowing the West to assign itself positive traits to contradict with the "negative" traits of the Orient.

France, the Conquest of Algeria, and its Effects

• Pieds noirs had perceptions of the indigenes and vice versa, with ties to France.
• In 1848, all Algerians were considered French citizens, but settlers were not happy with this.
• By 1954, there were 1 million pieds noirs (settlers/colonizers), with 79% born in Algeria, from various European countries like Italy, Spain, and France.
• World War I led to the birth of nationalism in the colonies.
• Les indigenes felt allegiance to France hoping for full acceptance if they served their country, but this was not the case.
• In 1848, Algeria was declared an integral part of France.
• Napoleon wanted to associate with the Natives.
• The Native Code (Senatus Consulte of 1895) required Algerians to give up their allegiance to Muslim law to gain French citizenship, incentivizing them not to accept French nationality.
• This increased separation between indigenes and pieds noirs.
• There was a perception that Muslims were impeding full integration by refusing to accept French values and detach from their religion.
• Europeans created an environment where they were not strangers, reversing the situation and making the Algerian the stranger.
• La loi Cremieux (1870) granted citizenship to Jewish natives of Algeria without requiring them to renounce their religious civil codes, while Muslims remained bound by the Senatus Consulte.
• Fighting in 1954 led to:
• Effects on France (politically, socially, and intellectually).
• DeGaulle's role initially aimed to maintain French control but later recognized the need for decolonization.
• The roles of various groups (FLN, OAS, Harkis).
• The Algerian War resurfaces in France, used in far-right political campaigns today.
• Justified colonialism by stating that the West has a duty to civilize inferior races, creating a binary opposition between a benevolent West and an uncivilized Orient.

Naylor - France and Algeria: a History of Decolonization and Transformation

• Colonization produced the pied noir identity at the expense of the colonized.
• France felt obligated to create a modern, progressive identity for Algeria, or risk neglecting its national duty.
• Algerian nationalism emerged during World War I with the founding of nationalist groups.
• World War II was a turning point as Algerians expected France to accept them after fighting for them.
• Instances like the 1945 Setif massacre reinforced anger toward the French.
• Groups like the FLN were founded to fight for Algerian nationalism, marking the beginning of the Algerian War.
• Decolonization involved transforming French and Algerian identities, extending beyond military conflict.

Immigration: French Muslims

• An immigrant is someone born outside of France to non-French parents who lives in France and is considered an immigrant even after naturalization.
• Jus soli: citizenship determined by the child's place of birth.
• Jus sanguinis: citizenship determined by the nationality of the parents.

Nationality Laws

• Français par déclaration:
• Children born to foreign parents can claim citizenship at 18 if they have lived in France for 5 years.
• Spouses of French citizens can claim citizenship after 4 years.
• Children of French nationals born abroad.
• Français par décret:
• Naturalization by government discretion.
• Immigration reasons: work, family reunification, and study.
• In the 19th century, France needed immigrants to work and increase the population, while in modern day the French do not want to "keep" the immigrants in the country for a long time.
• Persistent unemploymen due to persistent unemployment makes Immigration a hot topic.

Evolution of the Immigrant Population in France

• 1st generation: the 'myth' of return "the Arab Immigrant"
• France was seen as a land of opportunity, but not home.
• They sent money home to their families.
• Clinged to the myth of return to cope with the rejection they faced in France.
• Clandestine immigration occurred due to France needing workers, but the 1970 economic crisis halted further immigration.
• Many did not return due to the Algerian war consequences, the possibility of retiring in France, political/economic difficulties in Algeria, and France as a land of opportunity for their children.
• 2nd generation: assimilated/integrated – the Beur Generation
• Children of the first generation who attended republican schools and learned to speak up about injustices against their parents.
• Only 11% think of returning to their "home country."
• 9/10 consider French their mother tongue.
• They demand and obtain rights, are more secular → Beur culture in France.
• Created separation between the parents and children.
• Backlash by nationalists with headscarf rule.
• 3rd generation: rejecting and rejected by its home country, “ the Muslim citizen"
• Born in the midst of an economic crisis.
• Feeling rejected leads them to reject the whole system or return to a more Muslim identity.

Policies and Laws regarding Immigration

• Assimilation: being French means accepting republican values and forgetting ethnic origins through work, public education, and military service, emphasizing outward appearances.
• Integration: being French entails sharing a common conscience and practices, with people interacting and committing to the same objectives, measured by a sense of belonging to the group.
• Communautarisme: loyalty to your community is disloyalty to the Republic, dividing citizens by allegiance to communities over collective participation in the nation.
• Differences should be kept to private spheres. -Perception of Muslim communautarisme over integration.
• Colonial origin, arrival time, and post-war housing projects caused Differences between Muslim immigrants and others.
• French settlers took land, forcing natives to immigrate to urban areas in Algeria or France.
• Many first immigrants ended up in Marseilles as men who came alone but left their wives in Algeria as a way to ensure their return to France.
• Immigrants stayed for 2 years and were replaced by a family member, creating the noria system, which maintained ties to "home" and stopped integration.
• Most immigrants were Algerian due to proximity and desire to work.
• Immigration was channeled through the National Office of Immigration to strictly control immigrants.
• Post-WWII France had a severe housing shortage so shantytowns formed, further "othering" the population.
• The Grands Ensembles were created in the 1960s, which caused the problem of segregation.

Citizenship, Republicanism, and Multiculturalism in France

• Explores tension between French republicanism and multiculturalism.

Third Generation Algerians in France

• Third generation Algerians balance their Algerian heritage with French citizenship, feeling not fully accepted in France or connected to Algeria, leading to a new hybrid identity.

Constructing Mosques

• Resistance to building mosques stems from believing they will become centers of separation, against laïcité (secularism).

Secular Principle

• Defends laïcité for democracy but emphasizes room for for religious diversity -> emphasized neutrality.

Why the French Don't Like Headscarves

• The headscarf debate symbolizes secularism vs religious expression.
• The hijab embodies Islamic identity and religious commitment but also a political statement challenging French Republican values.