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• Ethiopian Art History I, Lecture 3 by Ashenafi T. from Bahir Dar University covers:
• The essence, definition, and methodologies of art history
• Megalithic structures art of Ethiopia
• Pre-Aksumite and Aksumite art
• Art of pre-Christian and Christian Aksum
• Art of the Zagwe Period 1150-1270

Essence and Definition of Art

• Understanding art begins with its etymology: the Greek word "tekne" = “skill.”
• "Skill" in an artistic context is knowledge, technical expertise, and the ability to create a particular object.
• Humans possess both instinctual and learned skills, but art predominantly uses learned skills gained through experience, education, and observation.
• Art is an artificial creation which is made by human beings and their creativity.
• Creativity is the second major component of art as it is a combined exercise of skill and creativity.
• A work of art is any product of combined skill and creativity.

Art History

• Art history is not simply a historical account of the development of art over time but it is the reconstruction of history from works of art, making the visible legible.
• The origin and development of art history are primarily contributed by two scholars.

Methodologies of Art History

• Formalism: emphasizes the emotional effects that works of art create.
• Iconography: writing or describing images (Eikon = image, Graphe = writing, logos = science/study).
• Iconology: the science/study of the images.
• Iconography and Iconology focuses on the meaning of subject matter; with content considered more important than form.
• There are three levels of identifying and reading a work of art in iconography:
• Pre-iconographic/primary: the first, deals with identification and subject matter recognition of natural forms and their meaning.
• Secondary subject matter entails the identification of conventional meanings.
• Tertiary subject matter involves identifying the intrinsic meaning of the image, taking culture, society, the artist, time, beliefs, and norms into account.
• Tertiary subject matter is the realm of iconology.
• Iconography deals with analysis, while iconology is with synthesis.

Human Evolution, Creativity, and Skill

• Australopithecus is the earliest hominid ancestor known so far, existing approximately 1-1.4 million years Before Present (BP).
• The Australopithecus had a Brain size ranging from 390-550 cc.
• This hominid was Bipedal and a natural tool user.
• Homo-habilis prevailed between 1.9 and 1.5 million years BP
• Brain size of Homo-habilis ranged between 590-800 cc.
• This was the first toolmaker among the homo species.
• Most of the tools are made from stone, bone, and wood and obsidian is used for cutting and chopping.
• Tools were made for temporary use only.
• Homo erectus existed on Earth from 1.8 million to 30,000 years before the present.
• Their brain size was approximately 1150 cc.
• They had the knowledge of how to make and preserve fire.
• The Homo Erectus participated in large-scale migration and the conquest of the world.
• Homo Erectus Created sophisticated tools and had organized and systematic hunting.
• Tools and implements made by early human ancestors have been discovered in several sites in the Rift Valley region of Ethiopia.
• Sites include Lower, Middle, and Upper Awash and the Lower Omo.
• Homo sapiens appeared around 100,000 BP.
• Homo sapiens have an average brain size of 1400 cc.
• They look almost identical to modern man.
• Human culture and organized life began with this species.

Megalithic Structures Art of Ethiopia

• Northeast Africa in general and the Ethiopian region in particular contain a considerable number of megalithic structures.
• Dating of these structures is still controversial, they are mostly phallic and used to mark graves/tombs, Walayta, Arusi, Alata (Sidamo), and other regions. Phallic megalithic structures are predominant in and around Aksum.
• Megalithic cultures of northern Ethiopia are the basis for the masonry of the later periods.

Ethiopian Art History: Historical Background

• Historical evidence suggests that organized societies forming a state existed in northern Ethiopia along the Red Sea littoral in the later part of the second millennium BCE.
• A hieroglyphic description in Queen Hatshepsut's temple and tomb, dating to the 15th century BCE, mentions King Perehu, sovereign of the land of Punt, indicating that civilization in northern Ethiopia predates the Sabaean migration across the Red Sea and is an Indigenous development.
• Punt was more than just a geographical reference; it was a state along the Red Sea.
• The kings of Punt politically dominated territories inland which are parts of today's Eritrea and northern Ethiopia.
• The history and society of Punt remain unknown due to a lack of records or material evidence.
• Egyptian hieroglyphic sources only note the types of commodities exchanged between the Egyptians and the people of Punt.
• The Red sea and South Arabia had a migration of Semitic Sabaean people began in the first millennium BCE from South Arabia to settle in northern Ethiopia, the Sabaeans had an advanced culture.
• The Sabaean settlement contributed to the development of various aspects of civilization but the original development was already in progress.
• Sabaean Cities were established in several places, intensifying trade between the Arabian and African coasts of the Red Sea.
• The Sabaeans dominated if they did not establish the pre-Aksumite state of Damat.
• Although the Sabaeans contribution and influence to pre-Aksumite civilization and culture was initially considerable.
• Map of important historical sites includes:
• Massawa, Adulis, Asmera, Cohaito, Tokonda, Kaskase/ba Matara, Seuhf Emni, Edit, Sabea, Daroca, Hawila Assaraw, Aksufm, Gobedra, Yeha, Adi Dakno, Salakala, Aba Pantalewon, Enda Kirquos Agudi, Haulti, Mahabere Dyogwe, Ezana.

Pre-Aksumite Art (c. 200-1000 BCE)

• The most fundamental and lasting contribution from the Sabaeans is writing; Sabaean is the earliest written language in northeast Africa which is closely similar to unvocalized Ge'ez.
• Stone inscriptions of the Sabaean language were extensively produced as early as the second quarter of the first millennium BCE.
• The rectangular form of architecture was also introduced by the Sabaeans.
• The remains of the Temple of Yeha are a typical example of Sabaean architecture.
• These Huge granite blocks/bricks were the basic construction materials.
• The absence of mortar makes pre-Aksumite and early Aksumite architecture unique.
• The Sabaean people seem to have introduced advanced masonic skills and produced high reliefs and miniature sculptures from marble and granite.
• Excavations uncovered iron implements indicating that chiseling was one of the techniques used in masonry and sculpture.
• Animal motifs, religious symbols, and figures of monarchs are found on the reliefs and sculpture during the period.

Art of Pre-Christian Aksum (c. 330 AD - 200 BCE)

• The Aksumite state dates back to 200 BCE and it lasted up to 1150 AD
• The present-day Aksum was its capital up to the 9th century.
• Between the 2nd and 6th centuries AD, Aksum became a mighty state and civilization where Aksum and Adulis served as metropolitan and commercial emporiums.
• Aksum's acquisition of an overseas territory in South Arabia was a fundamental factor to its civilization development.
• It helped Aksum control/monopolize the lucrative international trade conducted through the Red Sea.
• Erecting phallic steles to mark graves is an ancient culture in most parts of northeast Africa.
• Steles with architectural forms and religious symbols were produced owing to royal patronage and advancing masonic skills so the art of masonry flourished in the early part of the Aksumite period.
• The three steles of Aksum reveal meticulous precision and harmony of forms and patterns including size and proportion.
• Rocks, each weighing above 550 tons, were brought from about 15 kms west of the city and carved near where they were erected taking long durations of time.
• Scholars believe animal and human labor was used to transport and erect them, however, the archeological excavations and researches have never found any substantive proof of that. The meaning behind the technology used, site selection, stele morphology, and symbols is also unknown.
• Examinations show chiseling was used in carving, though not exclusively, as the precision of architectural forms and sharpness of cuts suggest other advanced methods/technology were used.
• Architecture flourished during the early Aksumite period.
• Current knowledge of Aksumite architecture comes from excavations of grand establishments whose base structure and program are almost intact.
• Important archeological excavations include:
  • German expedition in 1906
  • British Institute in 1972-74 at Cambrigde University.
  • Treasures unearthed are on display in the National Museum in Addis Ababa and museum at Aksum.
• Endubis and Ousanas minted Coins.
• Ezana's trilingual inscription and Ezana’s Christian coins
• During the three centuries of the Christian era Ge'ez/Ethiopic writing was highly improved.
• It became vocalized and a complete syllabry was developed as the six orders representing vowel sounds are palatalized from the consonant scripts.

Art of Christian Aksum (330-1150 AD)

• Aksumite architecture of the 6th and 7th centuries was largely based on wood, mud, and scramble stone.
• One of the most important developments in the late 9th century and afterwards was the beginning of rock-hewn architecture in Ethiopia.
• In the 9th century, monks and monasticism began constructing rock-hewn churches.
• Aksumite kings of the 9th and later centuries did not give patronage to rock-hewn churches.
• Individual monks began to construct cave-like churches in Geralta, Emba Tseada, Gundagundi, and Debre Asa-Temben.
• Most of the columns are arched and have capitals.
• Aksumite architecture is characterized by the use of post and lintel, not arches and columns.
• Some even relate the beginning of rock-hewn churches with the tradition of Ba'at.
• Arches and columns of Enda Aba Yohanni were carved with precision in the Lower Temben Area.
• Kosheshela, Suf, Astenager, and Eret were species of Aloe that may have been engraved in Christian Aksum Stone.

Art of the Zagwe Period (1150-1270)

• During the Zagwe period, three forms of art developed:
• Rock-hewn architecture
• Literature including Palatalization
• Processional and Pendant Crosses.
• Painting seems to have flourished, there are linear decorative forms tell and some animal motifs on the ceiling of churches.
• Aksumites predominantly used the Latin or diamond-shaped cross.
• The Zagwe used several kinds of crosses in processional form and for pendants.
• Forms of Zagwe Architecture include
• prevalence of aligned columns at short distances to give the appearance of space.
• Huge arched columns for balance and aesthetic purpose as a result of a limited space.
• Features of the Zagwe Architecture:
• A monolithic and free standing architecture
• The purpose of construction aimed to create a new Pilgrimage center – New Jerusalem
• Constructed with Narrow openings and refined by royal patronage
• The churches were constructed in the late Aksumite period and developed through the centuries.
• During the reign of Lalibela royal patronage refined this art.