Ion Channels in Electrical Signaling
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary function of neurons in the nervous system?

  • To produce neurotransmitters for other cells
  • To provide structural support to the nervous system
  • To transmit information throughout the nervous system (correct)
  • To regulate blood flow to the brain

    • What is the term for the gap between the terminal end of one neuron and the beginning of another?

  • Synapse (correct)
  • Myelin Sheath
  • Axon Hillock
  • Dendrite

    • What is the term for the part of the neuron that carries electrical signals away from the cell body?

  • Dendrite
  • Axon (correct)
  • Soma
  • Terminal Button

    • What is the term for the process by which an electrical signal is transmitted from one neuron to another?

    <p>Neurotransmission</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the voltage difference across the neuronal membrane during rest?

    <p>Resting Membrane Potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ion channels that open and close rapidly to change the membrane potential?

    <p>Voltage-Gated Ion Channels</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the cells that provide support and maintenance functions for neurons?

    <p>Glial Cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process by which the electrical gradient is generated in a neuron?

    <p>Asymmetrical Ion Distribution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Voltage-gated channels in generating an action potential?

    <p>To open and close according to the membrane potential</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of a hyperpolarizing current on the generation of an action potential?

    <p>It makes the inside of the cell less positive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Where are voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels located in a myelinated axon?

    <p>In the nodes of Ranvier</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of myelin in an axon?

    <p>To allow for the rapid transmission of action potentials down an axon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of a depolarizing current on the generation of an action potential?

    <p>It makes the inside of the cell more positive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of neurotransmitters in synaptic transmission?

    <p>To bind to specific receptors in the postsynaptic neuron</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of ion channels in cells?

    <p>To create passageways through which ions can flow</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of action potentials that makes them all-or-none phenomena?

    <p>The amplitude of the action potential does not depend on the size of the triggering depolarization</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the parasympathetic nervous system?

    <p>To decrease heart rate and stimulate digestion</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of glial cell forms myelin in the peripheral nervous system?

    <p>Schwann cell</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary neurotransmitter used by the sympathetic nervous system?

    <p>Norepinephrine</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main component of the central nervous system?

    <p>Brain and spinal cord</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the function of microglial cells in the immune response of the nervous system?

    <p>Phagocytosing damaged cells</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for a group of neurons?

    <p>Ganglia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of the autonomic nervous system?

    <p>Controlling the action of smooth muscles, the heart, and various glands</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the structure composed of layered neurons in each hemisphere?

    <p>Cerebral cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the principle that states that the anatomical organization of the body is reflected in the cortical representation of the body?

    <p>Topography</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of cortex receives and integrates input from multiple sensory modalities?

    <p>Association cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of minimizing connection lengths in the brain?

    <p>Faster signaling over shorter distances</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the organizational structure that combines short, fast, local connections with a few long-distance connections?

    <p>Small-world architecture</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of increasing brain size on long-distance brain connectivity?

    <p>Decreased long-distance connectivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do large brains maintain connectivity with increasing size?

    <p>By maintaining absolute connectivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of retaining some long-distance connections in the brain?

    <p>Improved communication between distant sites</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the reduction in interconnectivity with increasing brain size?

    <p>Decreased long-distance brain connectivity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following neurotransmitters is involved in the regulation of social behavior and bonding?

    <p>Oxytocin</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of electrical synapses?

    <p>To pass current directly from one neuron to another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a mechanism of neurotransmitter removal from the synaptic cleft?

    <p>Active reuptake</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the hypothalamus in terms of neurotransmission?

    <p>To regulate the release of hormones from the pituitary gland</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a type of neurotransmitter that is involved in nociception and pain modulation?

    <p>Opioid peptides</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of synapses in the nervous system?

    <p>To transmit information from one neuron to another</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is a characteristic of chemical synapses?

    <p>They release neurotransmitters into the synaptic cleft</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of neurohypophyseal hormones?

    <p>To regulate blood pressure and osmotic balance</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In Diffusion Tensor Imaging, what is the primary application of white matter pathway measurement?

    <p>Anatomical connectivity between brain regions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical time window for the N100 wave in Event-Related Potential analysis?

    <p>100-200 ms</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) over Computed Tomography (CT) in neuroimaging?

    <p>Higher spatial resolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of Magnetoencephalography (MEG) in cognitive neuroscience?

    <p>Source localization of neural activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between Electroencephalography (EEG) and Electrocorticography (ECoG)?

    <p>EEG measures surface EEG, while ECoG measures intracranial EEG</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of Event-Related Potential (ERP) analysis in cognitive neuroscience?

    <p>Investigating the neural correlates of cognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) in neuroimaging?

    <p>Measuring white matter pathways</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of Single-Cell Recording in animals?

    <p>Investigating neural correlates of behavior</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between Magnetoencephalography (MEG) and Electroencephalography (EEG)?

    <p>MEG measures magnetic fields, while EEG measures electrical activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of Electroencephalography (EEG) in cognitive neuroscience?

    <p>Investigating the neural correlates of cognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using MEG over EEG in cognitive research?

    <p>Improved spatial resolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of averaging EEG signals in ERP analysis?

    <p>To reduce noise and increase signal amplitude</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between EEG and ECoG?

    <p>EEG is non-invasive, while ECoG is invasive</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of event-related potentials (ERPs) in cognitive research?

    <p>To investigate neural mechanisms underlying cognitive processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using EEG in cognitive research?

    <p>Greater ease of use and lower cost compared to MEG</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of using positron emission tomography (PET) in neuroimaging?

    <p>To investigate neural activity and function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary limitation of using EEG in cognitive research?

    <p>Poor spatial resolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using MEG in neuroimaging?

    <p>Superior spatial resolution compared to EEG</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of electrocorticography (ECoG) in cognitive research?

    <p>To study neural activity during epilepsy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between ERP and EEG?

    <p>ERP is time-locked to specific events, while EEG measures spontaneous activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a major drawback of drug studies in perturbing neural function?

    <p>Lack of specificity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) research?

    <p>To transiently alter local brain physiology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the advantage of using genetic manipulations in neuroscientific research?

    <p>Ability to explore the consequences of the lack of expression of a specific gene</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)?

    <p>Enhancement of cognitive function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using computed tomography (CT) scans in neuroimaging?

    <p>High spatial resolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of structural analysis of the brain?

    <p>To identify areas of brain damage or abnormality</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary limitation of using drugs to perturb neural function?

    <p>Lack of specificity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) in neuroscientific research?

    <p>Ability to transiently alter local brain physiology</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary goal of genetic manipulations in neuroscientific research?

    <p>To explore the consequences of the lack of expression of a specific gene</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS)?

    <p>Enhancement of cognitive function</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of subtractive procedure in functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)?

    <p>To identify areas that show changes in metabolic activity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the gap between the terminal end of one neuron and the beginning of another in brain graphs?

    <p>Edge</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of computer models in neuroimaging research?

    <p>To simulate neural networks and generate predictions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Pittsburgh Compound B (PiB) in neuroimaging research?

    <p>To bind to beta-amyloid and detect Alzheimer's disease</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI)?

    <p>To use MRI to measure changes in the oxygen content of the blood</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of positron emission tomography (PET) in neuroimaging research?

    <p>To measure metabolic activity in the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of brain graphs in neuroimaging research?

    <p>To compare results from experiments using different methods</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of retino-topic maps in neuroimaging research?

    <p>To represent central vision more inferiorly than peripheral vision</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of event-related design in neuroimaging research?

    <p>To analyze the neural activity in response to specific stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary limitation of PET and fMRI in neuroimaging research?

    <p>They are limited by their spatial and temporal resolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary feature of retinotopic maps in the visual cortex?

    <p>They are organized by eccentricity and angular position</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the functional difference between area V4 and area V5 in the visual cortex?

    <p>V4 is sensitive to color information, and V5 is sensitive to motion information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using a flickering pinwheel stimulus in studying the visual cortex?

    <p>It allows for the study of temporal resolution limits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary feature of the visual cortex organization?

    <p>It is composed of multiple distinct regions with retinotopic maps</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the activation profiles of V1, hV4, and VO in response to a flickering pinwheel stimulus?

    <p>VO matches the perceptual experience, while V1 and hV4 match the actual stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the visual areas in the dorsal and ventral regions?

    <p>They are involved in processing information from different parts of the visual field</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the visual areas in the visual cortex?

    <p>They have functional differences that reflect the types of computations performed by cells within the areas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using functional magnetic resonance imaging (fMRI) to study the visual cortex?

    <p>It allows for the study of neural activity with high spatial resolution</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of receptive fields in a cortical module?

    <p>They vary based on input source and sensitivity to orientation.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the purpose of plotting the preferred orientation of cells as a function of electrode location?

    <p>To visualize orientation columns.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the organization of cells in the visual cortex, where cells with similar receptive fields are grouped together?

    <p>Cortical module.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the significance of the polygon formed in the polar graph of a cell's responses?

    <p>It represents the cell's optimal stimulus direction.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do cells within an ocular dominance column differ from each other?

    <p>They are sensitive to different input sources.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the benefit of the retinotopic organization of the visual cortex?

    <p>It allows for efficient processing of visual information.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of cells in the 'blobs' region of the visual cortex?

    <p>They are sensitive to color and finer details.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the relationship between orientation columns and ocular dominance columns?

    <p>They are complementary and intersect to form a cortical module.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the primary somatosensory cortex (S1)?

    <p>To contain a homunculus of the body, wherein the more sensitive regions encompass relatively larger areas of cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of visual neurons in the visual cortex?

    <p>They respond only to stimuli presented in a specific region of space</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the mapping between spatial location and the neural representation of that dimension in the visual cortex?

    <p>Retinotopic map</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of visual cortex area is organized into a topographic map, reflecting the spatial organization of the visual field?

    <p>V1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the optic nerve?

    <p>To transmit visual information from the retina to the brain</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the specific region of space that a visual neuron responds to?

    <p>Receptive field</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following visual cortex areas is NOT organized into a topographic map?

    <p>TEO</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the ganglion cells in the retina?

    <p>To form the optic nerve</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the superior colliculus in terms of visual processing?

    <p>Spatial orientation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the brain is associated with the inability to process motion?

    <p>V5 (human MT)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of presenting multisensory information coincidently in time and space?

    <p>Enhanced multisensory neural response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of synesthesia?

    <p>Mixing of the senses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of blindfolding individuals for five days?

    <p>Increased activation in the occipital cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the inability to perceive color?

    <p>Achromatopsia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is involved in processing information from multiple sensory modalities?

    <p>Superior temporal sulci</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary brain region responsible for processing visual information when the target is invisible due to the mask?

    <p>V1</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of unilateral lesions to the visual cortex?

    <p>Subtle impairment of visual acuity</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between the visual perception of individuals with a smaller V1 compared to those with a larger V1?

    <p>Individuals with a smaller V1 are more susceptible to visual illusions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the region of the brain responsible for color perception that is damaged in individuals with achromatopsia?

    <p>V4</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process by which an individual is able to perceive visual information in the absence of a visual cortex?

    <p>Blindsight</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the technique used to predict the orientation of the target from fMRI data?

    <p>Pattern classifier</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the areas of the brain that are organized in a specific spatial arrangement to process visual information?

    <p>Retinotopic maps</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process by which the brain is able to process visual information from multiple sensory modalities?

    <p>Multisensory processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the specific areas of the brain that are responsible for processing visual information from a specific part of the visual field?

    <p>Receptive fields</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the major problem with the concept of 'grandmother cells' in object recognition?

    <p>It cannot account for how we recognize novel objects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the problem faced by patients who can recognize objects but cannot use visual information to guide action?

    <p>Optic ataxia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of neurons in the temporal lobe?

    <p>To process visual information from the fovea</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between view-dependent and view-invariant recognition?

    <p>View-dependent recognition is more robust to changes in lighting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the type of recognition that is sensitive to changes in viewpoint?

    <p>View-dependent recognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of studying patients with selective lesions of the ventral pathway?

    <p>To understand the neural basis of object recognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary problem with the concept of 'ensemble coding' in object recognition?

    <p>It cannot account for how we recognize novel objects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between analytic and holistic processing in object recognition?

    <p>Holistic processing is more applicable to face recognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of studying object recognition in novel objects?

    <p>It allows for the study of object constancy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of studying patients with category-specific deficits?

    <p>To understand the neural basis of object recognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mode of processing involved in face perception?

    <p>Holistic processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain area is specialized for processing information about spatial relations or classifying objects based on spatial properties?

    <p>Parahippocampal Place Area (PPA)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of mind reading using decoding models?

    <p>It can predict the stimulus or mental state based on a physiological response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following brain areas is involved in the processing of body parts?

    <p>Extrastriate Body Area (EBA)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between view-dependent and view-invariant recognition?

    <p>View-dependent recognition requires the viewer to recognize the object from a specific viewpoint</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of analytic processing over holistic processing?

    <p>Analytic processing is more useful for object recognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of category-specific deficits?

    <p>They are specific to a particular category of objects</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary advantage of using statistical pattern recognition in mind reading?

    <p>It can predict the stimulus or mental state based on a physiological response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of mind reading in the future?

    <p>To communicate with people who are currently unable to speak</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between encoding and decoding models in mind reading?

    <p>Encoding models predict the physiological response to a stimulus, whereas decoding models predict the stimulus or mental state based on a physiological response</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the ventral stream, or occipitotemporal pathway?

    <p>Object perception and recognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where people perceive an object as a unified whole, not as an entity separated by its color, shape, and details?

    <p>Object constancy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of patients with visual agnosia?

    <p>They are unable to recognize objects visually, but can recognize them through touch</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between the dorsal and ventral streams?

    <p>The dorsal stream is specialized for spatial perception, while the ventral stream is specialized for object recognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where people recognize objects despite changes in their viewpoint?

    <p>View-invariant recognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of category-specific deficits?

    <p>A deficit in recognizing objects within a specific category, such as animals or tools</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of neurons in the parietal lobe?

    <p>Spatial perception</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the type of processing involved in recognizing objects as a whole?

    <p>Holistic processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between holistic and analytic processing?

    <p>Holistic processing is involved in recognizing objects as a whole, while analytic processing is involved in recognizing objects as a collection of features</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the phenomenon where people recognize faces as a whole, rather than as a collection of features?

    <p>Holistic processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is object constancy in the context of object recognition?

    <p>The ability to recognize objects in various situations despite changes in the physical stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of view-invariant recognition?

    <p>Recognizing an object from multiple angles</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of a category-specific deficit?

    <p>Inability to recognize objects in a specific category, such as animals</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the inability to recognize faces?

    <p>Prosopagnosia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the area in the fusiform gyrus of the temporal lobe that is specialized for face recognition?

    <p>Fusiform face area (FFA)</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the processing mode that emphasizes the component parts of an object?

    <p>Analytic processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the type of object recognition that occurs when the collective activation of many neurons is involved?

    <p>Ensemble theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the ability to recognize objects in various situations despite changes in the physical stimulus, and is achieved through view-invariant recognition?

    <p>Object constancy</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the deficits of object recognition that are restricted to certain classes of objects, such as animals or vehicles?

    <p>Category-specific deficits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the mode of processing that emphasizes the gestalt or overall shape of an object?

    <p>Holistic processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the biased competition model in visual attention?

    <p>To resolve competition among multiple stimuli for representation in higher-level visual areas</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between reflexive and voluntary spatial attention?

    <p>Reflexive attention is exogenous, whereas voluntary attention is endogenous</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of cueing tasks in attention research?

    <p>To measure the time course of attentional shifts</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of limited-capacity stages in attention?

    <p>They are involved in the serial processing of single stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between voluntary and reflexive attention in terms of neural basis?

    <p>Voluntary attention is associated with frontal and parietal cortex, whereas reflexive attention is associated with temporal cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the saccade in attention?

    <p>To shift attention to a new location</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of voluntary spatial attention?

    <p>It is driven by internal goals and is voluntary</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the limited-capacity stage in attention?

    <p>To filter out irrelevant sensory information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of spatial attention in the processing of visual inputs?

    <p>It increases the neural responses to attended stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of reflexive attention on early sensory processing?

    <p>It enhances the processing of all stimuli, but only transiently.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of highly focused spatial attention on the visual system?

    <p>It modulates the activity in the subcortical relay nuclei in the thalamus.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between reflexive and voluntary spatial attention?

    <p>Reflexive attention is automatic, while voluntary attention is controlled.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary application of cueing tasks in attention research?

    <p>To study the effects of attention on perception.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Biased Competition Model of attention?

    <p>A model that proposes attention is a competition between multiple stimuli.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary limitation of the Limited-Capacity Stage model of attention?

    <p>It assumes that attention is limited by the processing capacity of the brain.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between voluntary spatial attention and reflexive spatial attention?

    <p>Voluntary attention is controlled, while reflexive attention is automatic.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the ventral attention network?

    <p>Concerned with the nonspatial aspects of attention and alerting</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is part of the dorsal attention network?

    <p>Inferior parietal cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the network that includes the superior colliculi and the pulvinar of the thalamus?

    <p>Subcortical networks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the dorsal attention network?

    <p>Concerned primarily with orienting attention</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is strongly lateralized to the right hemisphere?

    <p>Temporoparietal junction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the system that interacts and cooperates with the dorsal attention network?

    <p>Ventral attention network</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain region is part of the ventral attention network?

    <p>Posterior parietal cortex of the temporoparietal junction</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the frontoparietal cortical systems?

    <p>Directing different attentional operations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the inhibition of return in reflexive spatial attention?

    <p>To inhibit attention to stimuli that appear at previously attended locations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What type of attention is involved in the selective processing of object features or entire objects?

    <p>Selective attention</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which brain regions are specialized for the perceptual processing of color, form, or motion and can be modulated during visual attention?

    <p>Extrastriate cortical regions</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the dorsal attention network?

    <p>To modulate attention to spatial locations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the phenomenon in which attention is directed to a specific location or object without conscious awareness of the cue?

    <p>Reflexive spatial attention</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the frontoparietal attention system?

    <p>To modulate attention to spatial locations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the selective processing of stimuli that are relevant to the current task or goal?

    <p>Selective attention</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the biased competition model?

    <p>To selectively process stimuli based on their relevance to the current task or goal</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main difference between early-selection models and late-selection models of attention?

    <p>Early-selection models propose that attention occurs early in the perceptual processing stream, while late-selection models propose that attention occurs late in the perceptual processing stream.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of limited-capacity stages in perceptual processing?

    <p>To prevent overload and ensure efficient processing of sensory information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of reflexive spatial attention in perceptual processing?

    <p>To automatically orient attention to a salient stimulus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary purpose of cueing tasks in the study of attention?

    <p>To manipulate the focus of attention in a controlled manner</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of voluntary spatial attention?

    <p>It is goal-directed and under voluntary control</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the Biased Competition Model of attention?

    <p>A model that proposes that attention is a competitive process between stimuli</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between covert attention and overt attention?

    <p>Overt attention involves eye movements, while covert attention does not</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary benefit of attention in perceptual processing?

    <p>To prevent overload and ensure efficient processing of sensory information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of memory loss in Short-Term Memory?

    <p>Decay</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Encoding in the memory process?

    <p>Processing of incoming information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of memory has a duration of minutes to hours?

    <p>Working Memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between Declarative and Non-Declarative Long-Term Memory?

    <p>Type of information stored</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of forgetting in Long-Term Memory?

    <p>Interference</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Working Memory?

    <p>Manipulation and processing of information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of memory has a duration of only a few seconds?

    <p>Sensory Memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary difference between Short-Term and Working Memory?

    <p>Type of information stored</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of memory is characterized by a limited capacity?

    <p>Short-Term Memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of Long-Term Memory?

    <p>Long-term storage of information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of the sensory systems in the process of memory formation?

    <p>To process and interpret sensory information</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of memory formation involves the stabilization of changes in the brain?

    <p>Consolidation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the loss of the ability to form new memories?

    <p>Anterograde amnesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the brief, transient sensory response to stimuli?

    <p>Sensory buffer</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the characteristic of retrograde amnesia in terms of the temporal gradient?

    <p>Greatest for the most recent events</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following brain structures is NOT directly involved in the process of memory formation?

    <p>Cerebellum</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the typical performance of patients with retrograde amnesia on digit span tests?

    <p>Normal short-term memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary function of retrieval in the process of memory?

    <p>To access stored information and create a conscious representation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of amnesia is characterized by the loss of memory for events that occurred in the past?

    <p>Retrograde amnesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary division of long-term memory?

    <p>Episodic memory and semantic memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of hippocampal memory consolidation?

    <p>Quick consolidation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the system composed of the hippocampus and surrounding structures?

    <p>Medial temporal lobe memory system</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary outcome of the process of learning?

    <p>Memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the effect of lesions to the anterior temporal cortex?

    <p>Severe retrograde amnesia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which stage of memory formation involves the processing and interpretation of sensory information?

    <p>Acquisition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the result of damage to the temporal lobe outside of the hippocampus?

    <p>Loss of semantic memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary mechanism of the cellular basis of learning and memory?

    <p>Changes in the strength of synapses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of long-term potentiation (LTP)?

    <p>An increase in the strength of synapses</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary theory of long-term memory consolidation?

    <p>Standard consolidation theory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of the CA3 region of the hippocampus?

    <p>Cooperativity, requiring multiple inputs to activate</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary deficit associated with anomia?

    <p>The inability to find the words to label things in the world</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which part of the brain is especially critical for language production and comprehension?

    <p>Left hemisphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the area in the left hemisphere known for its role in language production?

    <p>Broca's area</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of Broca's aphasia?

    <p>Problems with speech production, syntax, and grammar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of aphasia is associated with damage to the connection between Wernicke's and Broca's areas?

    <p>Conduction aphasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary characteristic of Wernicke's aphasia?

    <p>Relatively fluid speech with minimal comprehension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which area of the brain is involved in processing the prosody of language?

    <p>Right hemisphere</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for language disorders resulting from neurological damage?

    <p>Aphasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of Broca's aphasia?

    <p>Severe comprehension deficits</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the name of the fasciculus that connects Wernicke's and Broca's areas?

    <p>Arcuate fasciculus</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the smallest unit of language that has meaning?

    <p>Morpheme</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the way in which words in a particular language are organized into grammatically permitted sentences?

    <p>Syntax</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the brain's store of words and concepts?

    <p>Mental Lexicon</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the rhythm and the pitch of the speaker's voice in speech?

    <p>Prosody</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the area of the brain responsible for sound comprehension?

    <p>Superior Temporal Cortex</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the process of understanding spoken language?

    <p>Language Comprehension</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the organization of words in the mental lexicon?

    <p>Semantic Networks</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the smallest unit of sound that makes a difference to meaning?

    <p>Phoneme</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the rules that govern the composition of words, phrases, and sentences in a particular natural language?

    <p>Grammar</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the term for the disorder that results from damage to the language processing areas of the brain?

    <p>Conduction Aphasia</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Ion Channels and Action Potentials

    • Ion channels are formed by transmembrane proteins that create passageways through which ions can flow.
    • Ion channels can be either passive (always open) or gated (open only in the presence of electrical, chemical, or physical stimuli).
    • Depolarizing current makes the inside of the cell more positive, increasing the likelihood of generating an action potential.
    • Hyperpolarizing current makes the inside of the cell less positive, decreasing the likelihood of generating an action potential.
    • Action potentials are all-or-none phenomena, meaning the amplitude of the action potential does not depend on the size of the triggering depolarization.
    • Voltage-gated channels are crucial in generating an action potential, as they open and close according to the membrane potential.

    Action Potential Transmission

    • Myelin allows for the rapid transmission of action potentials down an axon.
    • Nodes of Ranvier are the spaces between sheaths of myelin where voltage-gated Na+ and K+ channels are located, and action potentials occur.

    Synaptic Transmission

    • Neurotransmitters are synthesized by and localized within the presynaptic neuron and stored in the presynaptic terminal before release.
    • Neurotransmitters are released by the presynaptic neuron when action potentials depolarize the terminal, primarily mediated by Ca2+.
    • The postsynaptic neuron contains receptors specific for the neurotransmitter.
    • When artificially applied to a postsynaptic cell, the neurotransmitter can bind to its receptors, causing excitatory or inhibitory postsynaptic potentials (EPSPs or IPSPs).

    Neurotransmitters

    • Classes of neurotransmitters include amino acids, biogenic amines, and neuropeptides.
    • Examples of neuropeptides include:
      • Tachykinins (brain-gut peptides)
      • Neurohypophyseal hormones (e.g., oxytocin and vasopressin)
      • Hypothalamic releasing hormones (e.g., corticotropin-releasing hormone)
      • Opioid peptides (e.g., endorphins and enkephalins)
      • Other neuropeptides (e.g., peptides that do not fit into another category)

    Inactivation of Neurotransmitters after Release

    • Neurotransmitters must be removed from the receptor after binding.
    • Removal can be accomplished by:
      • Active reuptake back into the presynaptic terminal
      • Enzymatic breakdown of the transmitter in the synaptic cleft
      • Diffusion of the neurotransmitter away from the region of the synapse

    Electrical Transmission

    • Electrical synapses operate by passing current directly from one neuron (presynaptic) to another neuron (postsynaptic) via specialized channels in gap junctions.
    • Gap junctions connect the cytoplasm of one cell directly to the other.

    Glial Cells

    • Astrocytes have an active role in modulating neural activity and help form the blood-brain barrier.
    • Glial cells aid in the speed of information transfer by forming myelin around the axons of the neurons.
    • Oligodendrocytes are glial cells that form myelin in the central nervous system.
    • Schwann cells are glial cells that form myelin in the peripheral nervous system.
    • Microglial cells are phagocytic cells that engulf damaged cells as part of the immune response of the nervous system.

    The Bigger Picture

    • The central nervous system consists of the brain and spinal cord.
    • The peripheral nervous system consists of all nerves and neurons outside of the central nervous system.
    • The autonomic nervous system is involved in controlling the action of smooth muscles, the heart, and various glands.
    • The sympathetic system uses the neurotransmitter norepinephrine, increasing heart rate and preparing the body for fight-or-flight responses.
    • The parasympathetic system uses acetylcholine as a neurotransmitter, decreasing heart rate and stimulating digestion.
    • Association cortices are regions of cortex that receive and integrate input from multiple sensory modalities.
    • The cerebral cortex is a continuous sheet of layered neurons in each hemisphere, with a topographical organization that reflects the anatomical organization of the body.

    Functional Magnetic Resonance Imaging (fMRI)

    • fMRI measures changes in oxygen content of the blood, assumed to be correlated with local changes in neuronal activity.
    • Areas that show increased blood flow when viewing a checkerboard stimulus have higher counts, reflecting increased metabolic activity.

    Positron Emission Tomography (PET)

    • PET measures metabolic activity in the brain by monitoring the distribution of a radioactive tracer.
    • Pittsburgh Compound B (PiB) is a tracer that binds to beta-amyloid and is used as an in vivo assay for Alzheimer's disease.

    Brain Graphs

    • Brain graphs are a valuable way to compare results from experiments using different methods.
    • Nodes in brain graphs act as connectors, providing links to more distant clusters.

    Methods for the Study of Neural Function

    • Single-cell recording allows neurophysiologists to record from individual neurons in the animal brain to understand how activity correlates with stimulation or behavior.
    • Electroencephalography (EEG) measures the electrical activity of the brain, including endogenous changes and changes triggered by specific events.
    • Event-related potential (ERP) is a change in electrical activity that is time-locked to specific events, such as the presentation of a stimulus or the onset of a response.

    Methods to Perturb Neural Function

    • Transcranial magnetic stimulation (TMS) uses magnetic pulses to transiently alter local brain physiology.
    • Transcranial direct current stimulation (tDCS) is a non-invasive method to modulate neural activity.
    • Genetic manipulations, such as gene knockout technology, allow scientists to explore the consequences of the lack of expression of a specific gene in order to determine its role in behavior.

    Structural Analysis of the Brain

    • Computed Tomography (CT or CAT) uses X-rays to image the 3-D structure of the brain.
    • Magnetic Resonance Imaging (MRI) exploits the magnetic properties of the organic tissue of the brain to image its structure, with superior spatial resolution to CT.
    • Diffusion Tensor Imaging (DTI) measures white matter pathways in the brain and offers information about anatomical connectivity between regions.

    Senses, Sensation, and Perception

    Sensation: Early Perceptual Processing

    • Somatosensory receptors respond to touch, pain, and proprioception (position and movement) information
    • Primary somatosensory cortex (S1) contains a homunculus of the body, with larger areas of cortex corresponding to more sensitive regions
    • Somatosensory representations exhibit plasticity, varying in extent and organization based on individual experience

    Vision

    Neural Pathways of Vision
    • Light activates photoreceptors (rods and cones) in the retina
    • Optic nerve forms from ganglion cell axons, some of which decussate at the optic chiasm
    • Axons in the optic nerve synapse on the LGN, which becomes the optic radiations sent to V1
    • 10% of fibers from the retina innervate non-LGN subcortical structures, including the pulvinar and superior colliculus
    Cortical Visual Areas
    • Visual neurons respond only to stimuli within a specific region of space (receptive field)
    • Visual cells form an orderly mapping between spatial location and neural representation (retinotopic maps)
    • Many distinct regions in the visual cortex, each with functional differences and distinct retinotopic maps
    • Humans have visual areas that do not correspond to any region in primate relatives
    • Areas V4 and V5 are sensitive to color and motion information, respectively

    From Sensation to Perception

    • Percepts are more closely related to activity in higher visual areas than in primary visual cortex
    • Anatomical differences among people in the size of V1 affect the extent of visual illusions

    Deficits in Visual Perception

    Deficits in Color Perception: Achromatopsia
    • Lesions to areas in and around human V4 result in achromatopsia (inability to perceive color)
    Deficits in Motion Perception: Akinetopsia
    • Lesions to area V5 (human MT) result in akinetopsia (inability to process motion)

    Multimodal Perception: I See What You're Sayin'

    Multimodal Processing in the Brain
    • Some areas of the brain, such as the superior colliculus and superior temporal sulci, process information from multiple senses
    • Multisensory neural responses are enhanced when information is presented coincidently in time and space
    Errors in Multimodal Processing: Synesthesia
    • Synesthesia is a condition where senses are mixed, e.g., colored hearing or graphemes
    • Synesthesia is associated with abnormal activation patterns and connectivity in functional and structural imaging studies

    Object Recognition

    • Object recognition involves the ability to recognize objects as a unified whole, beyond just their individual features.
    • This process is closely linked to memory and perception.

    Brain Regions Involved in Object Recognition

    • The fusiform face area (FFA) is specialized for face perception.
    • The parahippocampal place area (PPA) is specialized for processing spatial relations and classifying objects based on spatial properties.
    • The extrastriate body area (EBA) and the fusiform body area (FBA) are active when body parts are viewed.

    Mind Reading and Brain Signals

    • Encoding models predict physiological responses to stimuli, such as the BOLD response.
    • Decoding models predict the stimulus or mental state based on physiological responses, such as BOLD activity across voxels.

    Principles of Object Recognition

    • Object recognition is more than just sensation and perception.
    • Our ability to recognize objects remains robust despite changes in visual perspective.
    • Memory and perception are tightly linked.
    • Patients with visual agnosia are unable to recognize common objects visually, but can recognize them through other senses.

    Multiple Pathways for Visual Perception

    • The ventral "what" pathway is specialized for object perception and recognition, terminating in the inferotemporal cortex.
    • The dorsal "where" pathway is specialized for spatial perception, terminating in the posteroparietal cortex.

    Representational Differences Between the Dorsal and Ventral Streams

    • The ventral stream focuses on "vision for recognition."
    • The dorsal stream focuses on "vision for action."
    • Neurons in the parietal lobe have large, nonselective receptive fields.
    • Neurons in the temporal lobe have large receptive fields that are much more selective.

    Computational Problems in Object Recognition

    • Variability in sensory information affects object recognition.
    • View-dependent vs. view-invariant recognition theories differ in their assumptions about how objects are recognized.
    • Shape encoding is a critical aspect of object recognition.

    Grandmother Cells and Ensemble Coding

    • Grandmother cells are hypothetical neurons that respond to specific stimuli.
    • Ensemble coding theories propose that recognition arises from the collective activation of many neurons.

    Failures in Object Recognition

    • Object constancy refers to the ability to recognize objects despite variations in the physical stimulus.
    • Category-specific deficits are deficits of object recognition restricted to certain classes of objects.
    • Prosopagnosia is an inability to recognize faces.
    • Acquired alexia is characterized by reading problems after a patient has a stroke or head trauma.

    Voluntary Spatial Attention

    • Robert Desimone and John Duncan proposed the biased competition model for selective attention, which suggests that attention enhances the processing of relevant stimuli and suppresses the processing of irrelevant stimuli.
    • Spatial attention influences the processing of visual inputs, with attended stimuli producing greater neural responses than ignored stimuli in multiple visual cortical areas.
    • Voluntary spatial attention can modulate activity in the visual system in the subcortical relay nuclei in the thalamus, providing strong evidence for early-selection models of attention.

    Reflexive Spatial Attention

    • Reflexive attention is automatic and activated by stimuli that are conspicuous in some way, resulting in changes in early sensory processing.
    • A hallmark of reflexive attention is inhibition of return, where the recently reflexively attended location becomes inhibited over time, slowing responses to stimuli occurring there.
    • Reflexive attention is transient, with neural responses returning to baseline levels after a short period of time.

    Interplay Between Spatial and Feature Attention

    • Attention can be directed at spatial locations, object features, or entire objects.
    • Feature attention, such as attention to color or motion, can modulate activity in extrastriate cortical regions specialized for the perceptual processing of those features.

    Object Attention

    • Object attention involves selecting and processing an entire object, rather than just its individual features.
    • Object attention can be influenced by top-down expectations and prior knowledge.

    Review of Attention and Perceptual Selection Mechanisms

    • Attention influences the processing of visual inputs, with attended stimuli producing greater neural responses than ignored stimuli.
    • Spatial attention can modulate activity in the visual system in the subcortical relay nuclei in the thalamus, providing strong evidence for early-selection models of attention.
    • Reflexive attention is automatic and activated by stimuli that are conspicuous in some way, resulting in changes in early sensory processing.
    • Feature attention can modulate activity in extrastriate cortical regions specialized for the perceptual processing of those features.

    Attentional Control Networks

    • The dorsal attention network (DAN) is a bilateral frontoparietal network involved in spatial attention and orienting.
    • The ventral attention network (VAN) is a lateralized network involved in non-spatial aspects of attention and alerting.
    • The DAN includes regions such as the superior frontal cortex, inferior parietal cortex, and superior temporal cortex.
    • The VAN includes regions such as the temporoparietal junction (TPJ) and ventral frontal cortex (VFC).

    Review of Attentional Control Networks

    • The dorsal attention network is involved in spatial attention and orienting.
    • The ventral attention network is involved in non-spatial aspects of attention and alerting.
    • The two networks interact and cooperate to produce normal behavior.
    • Subcortical networks, including the superior colliculi and pulvinar of the thalamus, are also involved in attentional control.

    Models of Attention

    • Hermann von Helmholtz proposed the concept of covert attention, where attention is directed to a stimulus without moving the eyes.
    • The cocktail party effect demonstrates how attention can selectively filter out irrelevant stimuli in a noisy environment.
    • Early-selection models propose that attention filters out irrelevant information early in the processing stream, while late-selection models propose that attention selects information at a later stage of processing.
    • Attention can be quantified by measuring the effect of attention on information processing, such as through cuing tasks.

    Types of Memory

    • Sensory memory: lasts for milliseconds to seconds
    • Short-term memory: lasts for seconds to minutes
    • Working memory: a subtype of short-term memory that involves active manipulation of information
    • Long-term memory: lasts for hours, days, years, or a lifetime
    • Nondeclarative memory: involves skills and habits
    • Declarative memory: involves facts and knowledge

    Encoding

    • The process of processing incoming information to create memory traces
    • Consists of two separate steps: acquisition and consolidation
    • Acquisition: sensory systems are constantly bombarded by stimuli, but most only produce a brief transient sensory response
    • Consolidation: changes in the brain stabilize the information, making it more permanent

    Storage

    • The result of acquisition and consolidation, representing the permanent record of information

    Retrieval

    • Involves accessing stored information to create a conscious representation or execute a learned behavior

    Anatomy of Memory

    • Medial temporal lobe memory system: includes the hippocampus and surrounding rhinal and parahippocampal cortices
    • Other areas involved in memory: prefrontal cortex, parietal cortex, and subcortical structures

    Memory Deficits: Amnesia

    • Anterograde amnesia: the loss of the ability to form new memories
    • Retrograde amnesia: the loss of memory for events that happened in the past
    • Temporal gradient or Ribot's Law: retrograde amnesia tends to be greatest for the most recent events

    Mechanisms of Memory

    • Mechanisms of memory involve changes in the strength of synaptic connections between neurons
    • Long-term potentiation (LTP) and long-term depression (LTD) are two prominent theories of long-term memory consolidation

    Long-Term Forms of Memory

    • Verbal memory: involves remembering verbal information
    • Spatial memory: involves remembering spatial locations and relationships

    Cellular Basis of Learning and Memory

    • Most models hold that memory is the result of changes in the strength of synaptic connections between neurons
    • Hippocampal memory consolidation is a quick process

    The Anatomy of Language

    • Anomia is the inability to find the words to label things in the world, and it is not a deficit of knowledge.
    • A left-hemisphere network involving the frontal, parietal, and temporal lobes is especially critical for language production and comprehension.
    • The right hemisphere has roles in language, especially in processing the prosody of language.

    Brain Damage and Language Deficits

    Broca's Aphasia

    • Caused by damage to Broca's area in the left inferior frontal cortex
    • Characterized by problems with speech production, syntax, and grammar, but relatively good comprehension

    Wernicke's Aphasia

    • Characterized by severe comprehension deficits but relatively fluid speech production
    • Originally linked to damage solely in Wernicke's area (posterior superior temporal gyrus), but now also linked to damage outside this area

    Conduction Aphasia

    • Caused by damage to the connection between Wernicke's and Broca's areas (the arcuate fasciculus)
    • Characterized by problems producing spontaneous speech and repeating speech

    The Fundamentals of Language in the Human Brain

    Words and the Representation of Their Meaning

    • The mental lexicon is the brain's store of words and concepts
    • A morpheme is the smallest unit of language that has meaning
    • A phoneme is the smallest unit of sound that makes a difference to meaning
    • Semantic (meaning) relationships between words are an organizational principle of the mental lexicon

    Models of the Mental Lexicon

    • Syntax refers to the way in which words in a particular language are organized into grammatically permitted sentences
    • Grammar refers to the structural rules that govern the composition of words, phrases, and sentences in a particular natural language

    Language Comprehension

    Perceptual Analyses of the Linguistic Input

    • There are no pauses between phonemes in speech that correspond to words
    • The prosody of speech is the rhythm and the pitch of the speaker's voice

    Spoken Input: Understanding Speech

    • Sound comprehension involves the superior temporal cortex
    • Damage to this area can result in pure word deafness

    Written Input: Reading Words

    • Reading is a relatively recent invention (about 5,500 years old)
    • Although speech comprehension develops without explicit instruction, reading requires explicit instruction

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    Learn about ion channels, their types, and how they facilitate electrical signaling in cells. Understand the role of passive and gated channels in generating action potentials.

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