Introduction to Psychology
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Questions and Answers

What is the term used to describe the tendency to attribute one's successes to personal traits while attributing failures to external factors?

  • Cognitive dissonance
  • Confirmation bias
  • Self-serving bias (correct)
  • Fundamental attribution error
  • How does the anchoring and adjustment heuristic influence decision-making?

  • By avoiding the use of any reference points in estimations
  • By relying solely on intuition for problem-solving
  • By eliminating cognitive biases in decision-making
  • By starting with an initial value and making adjustments based on it (correct)
  • When someone thinks smoking is common among their friends, which cognitive bias are they exhibiting?

  • Self-serving bias
  • Availability heuristic (correct)
  • Optimism bias
  • Overconfidence effect
  • In the example provided about driving and flying, what cognitive concept is being illustrated?

    <p>Anchoring and adjustment heuristic</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect does believing that the world thinks in alignment with our attitudes have on our decision-making?

    <p>It reinforces anchoring in our thought processes</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the primary limitation of the trichromatic theory as illustrated by dichromats?

    <p>They can see yellow even without red or green iodopsin.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following color combinations are considered primary colors in the additive color model?

    <p>Red, green, and blue</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of opponent pairs in color perception?

    <p>They help organize visual receptor types into specific color pairings.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of depth cue involves the motion of objects relative to the observer?

    <p>Motion parallax</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements about pigments in the context of color vision is correct?

    <p>Red, blue, and yellow pigments can produce a variety of colors through subtractive mixing.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What distinguishes sensation from perception based on the content provided?

    <p>Perception involves the integration of sensory information with memory.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor does NOT influence the top-down processes in perception?

    <p>Distance from an object</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the main function of elaborative rehearsal in memory retention?

    <p>It helps process information more meaningfully for better recall.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which factor can lead to the self-fulfilling prophecy in educational settings?

    <p>Labeling some students as 'bright' creates expectations that affect teaching.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following statements best describes social comparison theory?

    <p>People are motivated to achieve accurate self-evaluations through comparisons with others.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What process involves interpreting social information and storing those experiences in memory?

    <p>Social cognition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How do individuals often enhance their recall of newly learned information according to the chunking method?

    <p>By organizing information into smaller, manageable units.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which term describes the influence of actual or imagined presence of others on one's thoughts and behaviors?

    <p>Social influence</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What effect is seen when misinformation is shared and believed due to its inflammatory nature?

    <p>It can create a misleading consensus among the population.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    In the study by Craik and Tulving, which condition resulted in the highest recall of information?

    <p>Sentence condition</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What can lead to individuals gaining self-knowledge according to self-perception theory?

    <p>Watching their own behavior and drawing conclusions.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which approach promotes better memory retention through varied interpretations during learning?

    <p>Deep processing</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does retention in memory refer to?

    <p>The preservation of stored material over time</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of retrieval in memory?

    <p>Recalling a friend's birthday during a conversation</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is the role of semantic priming in memory processing?

    <p>To enhance the processing of a word related to a preceding word</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which type of memory is described as being very short and related to visual stimuli?

    <p>Iconic memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the multi-store model of memory consist of?

    <p>Sensory, short-term, and long-term memory</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is an example of shallow processing?

    <p>Focusing on the sound of a word rather than its meaning</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is a common misconception about short-term memory capacity?

    <p>It can store unlimited items for long durations</p> Signup and view all the answers

    How does a schema affect memory retrieval?

    <p>It creates expectations that influence what we remember</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is trace-driven memory retrieval?

    <p>Retrieving a memory without alteration by current biases</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which study exemplified the malleability of eyewitness memory?

    <p>Loftus and Palmer's car speed study</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is phonemic restoration primarily concerned with in auditory perception?

    <p>Filling in missing pieces of sound based on expectations.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which principle describes the visual perception of distant objects appearing less detailed?

    <p>Aerial perspective</p> Signup and view all the answers

    The Ponzo illusion demonstrates how linear perspective influences perception by making:

    <p>Objects seem larger than they are.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What is measured through the principle of perceptual set?

    <p>The readiness to interpret stimuli based on experience.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the term 'induced motion' refer to in motion perception?

    <p>A stationary object appears to move when nearby objects are in motion.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What are illusory contours in the context of visual perception?

    <p>Edges that are perceived even in their absence.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Which of the following is an example of a Gestalt principle in problem-solving?

    <p>Suddenly altering one’s perspective to view problems differently.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What does the phi phenomenon illustrate in motion perception?

    <p>The illusion of stationary images appearing to move.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    What role does the feature detector play in perceptual organization?

    <p>It is responsible for recognizing specific visual patterns.</p> Signup and view all the answers

    Study Notes

    Early Psychology

    • Cartesian Dualism: separation of mind and body
    • Malevolent Demon: a being controlling input to one's senses
    • Brain in a Vat: a thought experiment where a brain in a computer thinks it's experiencing reality

    Perspectives in Psychology

    • Behaviourism: scientific study of observable behaviour
      • Pavlov: classical conditioning (dogs)
      • Skinner: operant conditioning
    • Psychodynamic: unconscious motivating forces guiding behaviour and personality
      • Freud: Id, Ego, Superego; psychosexual stages
      • Jung: unconscious processes
    • Humanistic: emphasizes human potential and free will
      • Rogers: client-centered therapy; unconditional positive regard
      • Maslow: hierarchy of needs
    • Cognitive: scientific study of mental processes
      • Ebbinghaus: memory research
    • Evolutionary: behaviour influenced by genes and survival needs
      • Darwin: natural selection
      • Dawkins: survival of the fittest gene
      • Wilson: sociobiology

    Science of Psychology

    • Biological: behaviour traced to physical causes
      • Broca's area: speech production
      • Wernicke's area: speech comprehension
    • Evolutionary: Behaviour influenced by genes and survival needs
      • Genes: self-replicating units
      • Mutations: variability in gene replication
      • Selection pressure: acts on variability
    • Memes: units of cultural information
    • Sociobiology: reproductive strategies influence behaviour

    Sensation

    • Touch: Three types of receptors (temperature, pressure, pain)
    • Taste: Taste buds; operate similarly to color (trichromatic)
    • Hearing:
      • Pitch: determined by frequency (Hz)
      • Loudness: determined by amplitude (dB)
      • Place theory: different parts of the basilar membrane vibrate at different pitches
      • Frequency theory: rate of hair cell firing corresponds to frequency
      • Volley theory: groups of hair cells fire alternately
    • Smell: Chemicals (pheromones) affect physiological responses.
    • Sight: Light waves; two types of receptors (rods and cones)
      • Rods: low light; no color
      • Cones: bright light; color information and detail
    • Color Vision: Trichromatic theory (three types of cones).

    Perception

    • Top-down processes: Memory, expectations, etc., affect info interpretation
    • Depth perception: Estimating distance
    • Monocular depth cues: Need one eye to see
    • Binocular depth cues: Need both eyes (retinal disparity, convergence)
    • Perceptual constancy: Size, shape, color, and brightness seem constant despite changes in sensory input.
    • Visual illusions: demonstrate how we perceive sensory input.
    • Motion Perception: involves detecting movement in a scene.
    • Figure-Ground: distinguishing a figure from its surroundings

    Memory

    • Stages of Memory:
      • Acquisition (Encoding): storing
      • Retention: preserving stored info
      • Retrieval: accessing info
    • Multi-store model: Sensory, Short-Term, Long-Term memory
    • Sensory Memory: brief, initial sensory experience (iconic - visual; echoic - auditory)
    • Short-Term Memory (STM): limited capacity
    • Long-Term Memory (LTM): Stores more information; includes
      • Semantic Memory: General knowledge
      • Episodic Memory: Experiences
    • Flashbulb Memories: vivid memories of surprising events
    • Levels of Processing: Deeper processing leads to better memory.
    • Encoding Specificity: Retrieval cues help recall.

    Social Cognition

    • Attributions: Inferences about the causes of behavior (individual/external).
    • Actor-Observer Bias: attributing our own behavior to external factors, others to internal factors.
    • Correspondence Bias (Fundamental Attribution Error): Overemphasizing internal factors when explaining others' behavior.
    • Heuristics: cognitive shortcuts for quick decisions
      • Availability: ease of recall affects perceived likelihood.
      • Representativeness: similarity to prototypes influences judgements.
    • Cognitive Dissonance: tension from inconsistent attitudes and behaviors.
    • Social Comparison: evaluating ourselves by comparing to others.
    • Schemas: mental frameworks for organizing information.
    • Priming: activating certain concepts in memory.
    • Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination: prejudgments about social groups.

    Social Influence

    • Compliance: changing behavior due to direct requests.
    • Obedience: Changing behavior due to authority figures.
    • Conformity: changing behavior to match others.
    • Principles of Compliance: Reciprocity, Consistency, Liking, Authority.
      • Door-in-the-face technique: Large request followed by smaller one.
      • Foot-in-the-door technique: Small request followed by larger one.

    Health Psychology

    • Stress: Physiological, emotional, and behavioural response to challenges or threats.
    • Stressors: Events that trigger stress.
    • General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Three stages: Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion.
    • Cognitive Appraisal: Evaluating events as threats or challenges.
    • Coping: Strategies to manage stress.
      • Problem-focused coping: addressing source of stress.
      • Emotion-focused coping: managing reactions to stress.
    • Social Support: Influence of support on health.

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    Description

    Explore the foundational concepts in early psychology, including Cartesian Dualism and thought experiments like the Brain in a Vat. Delve into various psychological perspectives such as Behaviorism, Psychodynamic theory, Humanistic psychology, Cognitive psychology, and Evolutionary psychology. Understand how these frameworks shape our understanding of human behavior and mental processes.

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