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Questions and Answers
What is the term used to describe the tendency to attribute one's successes to personal traits while attributing failures to external factors?
What is the term used to describe the tendency to attribute one's successes to personal traits while attributing failures to external factors?
How does the anchoring and adjustment heuristic influence decision-making?
How does the anchoring and adjustment heuristic influence decision-making?
When someone thinks smoking is common among their friends, which cognitive bias are they exhibiting?
When someone thinks smoking is common among their friends, which cognitive bias are they exhibiting?
In the example provided about driving and flying, what cognitive concept is being illustrated?
In the example provided about driving and flying, what cognitive concept is being illustrated?
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What effect does believing that the world thinks in alignment with our attitudes have on our decision-making?
What effect does believing that the world thinks in alignment with our attitudes have on our decision-making?
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What is the primary limitation of the trichromatic theory as illustrated by dichromats?
What is the primary limitation of the trichromatic theory as illustrated by dichromats?
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Which of the following color combinations are considered primary colors in the additive color model?
Which of the following color combinations are considered primary colors in the additive color model?
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What is the role of opponent pairs in color perception?
What is the role of opponent pairs in color perception?
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Which type of depth cue involves the motion of objects relative to the observer?
Which type of depth cue involves the motion of objects relative to the observer?
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Which of the following statements about pigments in the context of color vision is correct?
Which of the following statements about pigments in the context of color vision is correct?
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What distinguishes sensation from perception based on the content provided?
What distinguishes sensation from perception based on the content provided?
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Which factor does NOT influence the top-down processes in perception?
Which factor does NOT influence the top-down processes in perception?
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What is the main function of elaborative rehearsal in memory retention?
What is the main function of elaborative rehearsal in memory retention?
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Which factor can lead to the self-fulfilling prophecy in educational settings?
Which factor can lead to the self-fulfilling prophecy in educational settings?
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Which of the following statements best describes social comparison theory?
Which of the following statements best describes social comparison theory?
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What process involves interpreting social information and storing those experiences in memory?
What process involves interpreting social information and storing those experiences in memory?
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How do individuals often enhance their recall of newly learned information according to the chunking method?
How do individuals often enhance their recall of newly learned information according to the chunking method?
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Which term describes the influence of actual or imagined presence of others on one's thoughts and behaviors?
Which term describes the influence of actual or imagined presence of others on one's thoughts and behaviors?
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What effect is seen when misinformation is shared and believed due to its inflammatory nature?
What effect is seen when misinformation is shared and believed due to its inflammatory nature?
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In the study by Craik and Tulving, which condition resulted in the highest recall of information?
In the study by Craik and Tulving, which condition resulted in the highest recall of information?
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What can lead to individuals gaining self-knowledge according to self-perception theory?
What can lead to individuals gaining self-knowledge according to self-perception theory?
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Which approach promotes better memory retention through varied interpretations during learning?
Which approach promotes better memory retention through varied interpretations during learning?
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What does retention in memory refer to?
What does retention in memory refer to?
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Which of the following is an example of retrieval in memory?
Which of the following is an example of retrieval in memory?
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What is the role of semantic priming in memory processing?
What is the role of semantic priming in memory processing?
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Which type of memory is described as being very short and related to visual stimuli?
Which type of memory is described as being very short and related to visual stimuli?
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What does the multi-store model of memory consist of?
What does the multi-store model of memory consist of?
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What is an example of shallow processing?
What is an example of shallow processing?
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What is a common misconception about short-term memory capacity?
What is a common misconception about short-term memory capacity?
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How does a schema affect memory retrieval?
How does a schema affect memory retrieval?
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What is trace-driven memory retrieval?
What is trace-driven memory retrieval?
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Which study exemplified the malleability of eyewitness memory?
Which study exemplified the malleability of eyewitness memory?
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What is phonemic restoration primarily concerned with in auditory perception?
What is phonemic restoration primarily concerned with in auditory perception?
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Which principle describes the visual perception of distant objects appearing less detailed?
Which principle describes the visual perception of distant objects appearing less detailed?
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The Ponzo illusion demonstrates how linear perspective influences perception by making:
The Ponzo illusion demonstrates how linear perspective influences perception by making:
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What is measured through the principle of perceptual set?
What is measured through the principle of perceptual set?
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What does the term 'induced motion' refer to in motion perception?
What does the term 'induced motion' refer to in motion perception?
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What are illusory contours in the context of visual perception?
What are illusory contours in the context of visual perception?
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Which of the following is an example of a Gestalt principle in problem-solving?
Which of the following is an example of a Gestalt principle in problem-solving?
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What does the phi phenomenon illustrate in motion perception?
What does the phi phenomenon illustrate in motion perception?
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What role does the feature detector play in perceptual organization?
What role does the feature detector play in perceptual organization?
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Study Notes
Early Psychology
- Cartesian Dualism: separation of mind and body
- Malevolent Demon: a being controlling input to one's senses
- Brain in a Vat: a thought experiment where a brain in a computer thinks it's experiencing reality
Perspectives in Psychology
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Behaviourism: scientific study of observable behaviour
- Pavlov: classical conditioning (dogs)
- Skinner: operant conditioning
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Psychodynamic: unconscious motivating forces guiding behaviour and personality
- Freud: Id, Ego, Superego; psychosexual stages
- Jung: unconscious processes
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Humanistic: emphasizes human potential and free will
- Rogers: client-centered therapy; unconditional positive regard
- Maslow: hierarchy of needs
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Cognitive: scientific study of mental processes
- Ebbinghaus: memory research
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Evolutionary: behaviour influenced by genes and survival needs
- Darwin: natural selection
- Dawkins: survival of the fittest gene
- Wilson: sociobiology
Science of Psychology
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Biological: behaviour traced to physical causes
- Broca's area: speech production
- Wernicke's area: speech comprehension
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Evolutionary: Behaviour influenced by genes and survival needs
- Genes: self-replicating units
- Mutations: variability in gene replication
- Selection pressure: acts on variability
- Memes: units of cultural information
- Sociobiology: reproductive strategies influence behaviour
Sensation
- Touch: Three types of receptors (temperature, pressure, pain)
- Taste: Taste buds; operate similarly to color (trichromatic)
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Hearing:
- Pitch: determined by frequency (Hz)
- Loudness: determined by amplitude (dB)
- Place theory: different parts of the basilar membrane vibrate at different pitches
- Frequency theory: rate of hair cell firing corresponds to frequency
- Volley theory: groups of hair cells fire alternately
- Smell: Chemicals (pheromones) affect physiological responses.
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Sight: Light waves; two types of receptors (rods and cones)
- Rods: low light; no color
- Cones: bright light; color information and detail
- Color Vision: Trichromatic theory (three types of cones).
Perception
- Top-down processes: Memory, expectations, etc., affect info interpretation
- Depth perception: Estimating distance
- Monocular depth cues: Need one eye to see
- Binocular depth cues: Need both eyes (retinal disparity, convergence)
- Perceptual constancy: Size, shape, color, and brightness seem constant despite changes in sensory input.
- Visual illusions: demonstrate how we perceive sensory input.
- Motion Perception: involves detecting movement in a scene.
- Figure-Ground: distinguishing a figure from its surroundings
Memory
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Stages of Memory:
- Acquisition (Encoding): storing
- Retention: preserving stored info
- Retrieval: accessing info
- Multi-store model: Sensory, Short-Term, Long-Term memory
- Sensory Memory: brief, initial sensory experience (iconic - visual; echoic - auditory)
- Short-Term Memory (STM): limited capacity
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Long-Term Memory (LTM): Stores more information; includes
- Semantic Memory: General knowledge
- Episodic Memory: Experiences
- Flashbulb Memories: vivid memories of surprising events
- Levels of Processing: Deeper processing leads to better memory.
- Encoding Specificity: Retrieval cues help recall.
Social Cognition
- Attributions: Inferences about the causes of behavior (individual/external).
- Actor-Observer Bias: attributing our own behavior to external factors, others to internal factors.
- Correspondence Bias (Fundamental Attribution Error): Overemphasizing internal factors when explaining others' behavior.
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Heuristics: cognitive shortcuts for quick decisions
- Availability: ease of recall affects perceived likelihood.
- Representativeness: similarity to prototypes influences judgements.
- Cognitive Dissonance: tension from inconsistent attitudes and behaviors.
- Social Comparison: evaluating ourselves by comparing to others.
- Schemas: mental frameworks for organizing information.
- Priming: activating certain concepts in memory.
- Stereotyping, prejudice, and discrimination: prejudgments about social groups.
Social Influence
- Compliance: changing behavior due to direct requests.
- Obedience: Changing behavior due to authority figures.
- Conformity: changing behavior to match others.
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Principles of Compliance: Reciprocity, Consistency, Liking, Authority.
- Door-in-the-face technique: Large request followed by smaller one.
- Foot-in-the-door technique: Small request followed by larger one.
Health Psychology
- Stress: Physiological, emotional, and behavioural response to challenges or threats.
- Stressors: Events that trigger stress.
- General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS): Three stages: Alarm, Resistance, Exhaustion.
- Cognitive Appraisal: Evaluating events as threats or challenges.
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Coping: Strategies to manage stress.
- Problem-focused coping: addressing source of stress.
- Emotion-focused coping: managing reactions to stress.
- Social Support: Influence of support on health.
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Description
Explore the foundational concepts in early psychology, including Cartesian Dualism and thought experiments like the Brain in a Vat. Delve into various psychological perspectives such as Behaviorism, Psychodynamic theory, Humanistic psychology, Cognitive psychology, and Evolutionary psychology. Understand how these frameworks shape our understanding of human behavior and mental processes.