Introduction to Pharmacognosy

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Questions and Answers

What is the name given to the branch of science that studies the origin, botany, and chemistry of medicinal substances, especially those derived from natural sources?

Pharmacognosy

Which of the following ways was knowledge of medicinal properties of plants acquired by ancient civilizations?

  • Trial and error (correct)
  • Accidental discovery (correct)
  • Observation of animal behavior (correct)
  • Signature of Nature (correct)
  • All of the above (correct)

The medicine men in ancient cultures were known to share their knowledge of medicinal plants openly?

False (B)

What is the name of the ancient Mesopotamian writing system using baked clay tablets?

<p>Cuneiform writing</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the ancient Chinese medical text that records the medicinal value of 365 drugs?

<p>Pen T-Sao</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the oldest known medical text written in the ancient Egyptian language?

<p>Ebers Papyrus</p> Signup and view all the answers

The Edwin Smith Papyrus deals primarily with the health of women and birthing practices?

<p>False (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Match the following ancient medicinal texts to their respective cultures:

<p>Ebers Papyrus = Ancient Egypt Pen T-Sao = Ancient China De Materia Medica = Ancient Greece and Rome Caraka Samhita = Ancient India Treatise of Medical Diagnosis and Prognosis = Ancient Mesopotamia</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who is considered the 'Father of Medicine'?

<p>Hippocrates</p> Signup and view all the answers

What important concept did the ancient Greek philosopher Aristotle contribute to the field of medicine?

<p>Aristotle catalogued over 500 plants that had medicinal value.</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the ancient Greek author and botanist who wrote De Historia Plantarum and De Causis Plantarum?

<p>Theophrastus</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who is credited as the first herbalist to produce an illustrated work on medicinal plants?

<p>Krateus</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the ancient Greek physician who wrote De Materia Medica and documented 500 medicinal plants?

<p>Pedanios Dioscorides</p> Signup and view all the answers

How many volumes did De Materia Medica contain?

<p>Five</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who is the ancient Roman author known for his work, Natural History, which is a compilation of knowledge on plants from the Roman period?

<p>Pliny the Elder</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who is the 3rd century AD Greek physician who codified the preparation of drugs using multiple ingredients by mechanical means and his methods are called Galenicals?

<p>Claudius Galen</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who is the influential Persian polymath and physician considered one of the brilliant contributors to Pharmacy and Medicine, known for his work, The Canon of Medicine?

<p>Ibn Sina</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the 16th century Swiss physician, alchemist, and philosopher, also known as Paracelsus, who introduced minerals into medical practice and emphasized the belief in the power of nature in healing?

<p>Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the organization founded in London in 1617 that played a significant role in the development of pharmacognosy in England?

<p>Worshipful Society of Apothecaries</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the famous English apothecary and astrologer who wrote Culpeper's Herbal, a renowned guide to medicinal plants?

<p>Nicholas Culpeper</p> Signup and view all the answers

What 18th century scientist is famous for classifying and naming plants?

<p>Carolus Linnaeus</p> Signup and view all the answers

The 19th century saw the start of the era of pure compounds in medicine. This involved isolating and studying the active components of plants.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What alkaloid was isolated from opium in the early 19th century by German pharmacist Friedrich Wilhelm Sertürner?

<p>Morphine</p> Signup and view all the answers

What active compound was isolated from willow bark (Salix spp.) in 1829?

<p>Salicin</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the name of the alkaloid isolated from Cinchona bark in 1820?

<p>Quinine</p> Signup and view all the answers

What alkaloid was isolated from belladonna (Atropa belladonna) in 1833?

<p>Atropine</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which alkaloid was isolated from the coffee shrub (Coffea arabica) in 1821?

<p>Caffeine</p> Signup and view all the answers

Coniine, a highly poisonous alkaloid found in hemlock, was the first alkaloid to have its structure elucidated.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What alkaloid, which is highly emetic, was isolated from ipecacuanha (Cephaelis ipecacuanha) in 1817?

<p>Emetine</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which alkaloid, isolated from nux-vomica (Strychnos spp.), is used as a tonic and stimulant?

<p>Strychnine</p> Signup and view all the answers

What famous French physiologist conducted extensive research on the pharmacological effects of plant extracts, including the study of curare?

<p>Claude Bernard</p> Signup and view all the answers

What plant was identified as the source of curare in the 19th century?

<p>Chondrodendrone tomentosum</p> Signup and view all the answers

The 20th century saw the rise of phytochemistry as a distinct branch of science, focused on the study of plant compounds.

<p>True (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What antibacterial substance was discovered in 1928 by Florey and Fleming?

<p>Benzylpenicillin</p> Signup and view all the answers

Who is noted as the German scientist who is known for his work with methylene blue as a chemotherapeutic agent, used in the treatment of malaria?

<p>Paul Ehrlich</p> Signup and view all the answers

What antimitotic drug, also known as Taxol, was discovered in the 20th century, and has been used to treat various cancers?

<p>Paclitaxel</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

What is Pharmacognosy?

The study of medicinal plants and their uses, including their discovery, cultivation, preparation, and chemical analysis.

When was apothecary first documented?

The earliest known record of the apothecary's art dates back to ancient Mesopotamia, around 3000 B.C.

Who is Emperor Sheng Nung?

Emperor Sheng Nung, around 2700 B.C., was known for investigating the medicinal values of plants by tasting them to discover their properties.

Who is Theophrastus?

He was a Greek philosopher who listed over 500 plants with their uses and descriptions.

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Who is Dioscorides?

He was a Greek physician, born around 40 A.D., known for his book 'De Materia Medica,' describing over 500 medicinal plants.

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Who is Galen?

He was a 3rd-century A.D. Greek physician known for codifying the preparation of drugs using multiple ingredients through mechanical means, called pharmaceutics.

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When and where was the first official pharmacopoeia?

The first official pharmacopoeia with legal status originated in Florence, Italy, in 1498, established by the Guild of Apothecaries and Medical Society.

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Who is Paracelsus?

Theophrastus Bombastus von Hohenheim, known as Paracelsus, introduced minerals into medical practice and called for extracting active principles from plants, animals, and minerals.

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What is the 'Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis'?

This book by Martin de la Cruz documented medicinal herbs of the indigenous people of Mexico. It was written in 1552.

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What two important things occurred for Apothecaries in 17th Century England?

The Worshipful Society of Apothecaries was founded in London in 1617, and in 1673 established the Chelsea Physic Garden, a garden dedicated to medicinal plants.

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What are Quinine and D-tubocurarine?

Derived from South America, it was a revolution in biomedicine as it was derived from a plant.

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Who is Nicholas Culpeper?

He was a well-known English apothecary and astrologer known for his herbal, 'Culpeper’s Herbal,' rivaling John Gerard's work.

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When was the era of European exploration?

This refers to the period of European exploration overseas, starting in the 16th and 17th centuries, which brought new plants and medicinal knowledge to Europe.

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Who is Carl Linnaeus?

Carl Linnaeus was a Swedish botanist who developed the binomial nomenclature system for classifying plants and animals, a system still used today.

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What is natural product chemistry or phytochemistry?

This is the isolation and characterization of pure chemical compounds from nature.

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What is semi-synthesis of drugs?

This refers to the process of using isolated compounds to create new drugs or to develop new drugs based on their structure.

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What is the discovery of penicillin and its significance?

This refers to the discovery of the antibacterial properties of fungal metabolites, such as penicillin, by Florey and Fleming in 1928, a groundbreaking discovery in medicine.

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What is the advent of synthetic chemistry in pharmacy?

The development of synthetic drugs refers to the making of new drugs completely in the lab, which often mimics the structure and function of natural compounds.

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What is morphine?

This is the first known narcotic principle isolated from opium. It's an important pain reliever and sedative still in use today.

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What is salicin?

This is an alkaloid isolated from willow bark used to treat pain and fever, and it was the basis for the development of aspirin.

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What is quinine?

It was first isolated from cinchona bark and has played a crucial role in treating malaria.

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What is atropine?

It was first isolated from belladonna and has been used for treating asthma and as a muscle relaxant.

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What is caffeine?

It was first isolated from coffee and is a stimulant widely used today.

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What is coniine?

It is a highly poisonous natural product first isolated in 1826 from hemlock. Its properties were known for its use by Socrates to commit suicide.

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Who is Claude Bernard and what did he study?

Claude Bernard, a French physiologist, studied the pharmacological action of plant extracts, particularly curare, a drug used by indigenous people of the Amazon for hunting.

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What is D-tubocurarine?

It is the main component of the curare drug, a potent muscle relaxant used in medicine.

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How did pharmacognosy expand in the 20th century?

The 20th century marked a significant expansion in pharmacognosy with the discovery of medicinal properties in the animal kingdom and microorganisms.

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What is the significance of benzylpenicillin?

This is an example of how a fungal metabolite was used to treat bacterial infections.

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What is Phytotherapy?

This refers to the practice of using plant-derived compounds to treat diseases, which has a long history in various cultures.

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What are Clove, Nutmeg, Java tea, Jambul, and Galangal?

These are traditionally used in Indonesian medicine and are known for their medicinal and culinary purposes.

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Who is Jonathan Pereira?

He was a pioneer in the field of pharmacognosy, establishing its scientific basis and applications.

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Who is Daniel Hanbury?

He was a prominent applied pharmacognosist, known for his extensive work on medicinal plants.

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Who is E. M. Holmes?

He was a leading applied pharmacognosist known for his contributions to understanding and eliminating adulteration in powdered drugs.

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Who is H. G. Greenish and T. E. Wallis?

They were pioneers in transforming pharmacognosy by contributing to the elimination of adulteration in powdered drugs.

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What is the origin of the word 'pharmacognosy'?

The word 'pharmacognosy' is derived from Greek words: 'pharmakon' meaning 'drug' and 'gignosco' meaning 'to acquire knowledge of.'

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Study Notes

Introduction to Pharmacognosy

  • Pharmacognosy is considered the "mother of all sciences".
  • This is due to its historical importance and role in discovering medicinal properties of plants.

Methods of Acquiring Knowledge of Medicinal Properties of Plants

  • Early methods included:
    • Trial and error for discovering the effect of plants.
    • Observation of animals for identifying palatable and non-palatable plants.
    • Accidental discovery.
    • Analyzing the plant's physical characteristic (Signature of Nature)

Monopolization of Knowledge

  • Medicine men often monopolized drug knowledge, keeping it hidden in forms of chants or incantations.

Pre-Historic Evidence of Pharmacognosy

  • 60,000 B.C., Shanidar, Iraq
  • The remains contained pollen grains from seven to eight plant species.

New Stone Age (8,000-5,000 B.C.)

  • Shift from food gathering to food production.
  • Women played a role in preparing food and healing potions, while men were responsible for documenting these remedies.

Early Arabic and European Records (3,300 B.C.)

  • Birch Polypore (Medicinal Mushrooms):
    • Scientific name: Piptoporus betulinus or Fomitopsis betulina
    • Active Compound: Agaric acid
    • Medicinal Uses: strong purgative and anti-mycobacterial, but toxic

Ancient Mesopotamia

  • Cuneiform writing was the dominant form of communication.
  • "Treatise of Medical Diagnosis and Prognosis" (1600 B.C.):
    • A series of 40 tablets compiled by Jean Baptiste Labat, documenting the management of excessive bleeding.
  • Babylonians (c. 3000 B.C):
    • Early records of apothecary practices
    • Clay tablet texts provide records of symptoms, prescriptions, and instructions for compounding remedies followed by invocations to the gods.

Ashipu and Asu

  • Ashipu: Diagnosed ailments.
  • Asu: Specialist in herbal remedies

Ancient China

  • Emperor Sheng Nung (c. 2700 B.C.):
    • Investigated herbs by tasting, determining their qualities.
    • Compiled the Pen T-Sao, a record of 365 drugs, including podophyllum, rhubarb, ginseng, stramonium, cinnamon bark, and ephedra.
  • Shang Hang Lun written by Chang Chung-Ching
  • Chin Kuei Yao Lueh: Companion book to Shang Hang Lun, providing basis of classical Chinese herbal formulas used in Kampo.
  • Pen T’sao Jing Ji Zhu written by Tao Hong Jing:
    • Compiled 730 herbs, classified into 6 categories.

Kampo

  • Traditional Japanese Medicine, sometimes referred to as low-dose TCM.
  • Daidoruijoho: Compendium of Japanese medicine compiled by Yasuyori Tamba in 984.
  • Ishinho: Contained medical knowledge from the Sui and Tang dynasties (30 scrolls)

Sui Dynasty (598-618)

  • Sui Shu Jing Ji Zhi: Bibliography of the History of Sui (covering the Sui dynasty)
  • Zhong Zhi Yue Fa: How to cultivate herbs.
  • Ru Lin Cai Yue Fa: How to collect herbs in the forest.

Sung Dynasty (960-1276)

  • Standard pharmaceutical system established in China
  • Preparation methods varied based on specific disease treatments.

Later Ming Dynasty

  • Herbal with Commentary (Pen T’sao Kan Mu) by Li Shi Zhen:
  • 3 revisions, including 1892 drugs, 1160 drawings, and more than 11,000 prescriptions.

Ancient Egypt

  • Ebers Papyrus (1550 B.C.):
    • Comprehensive medical document, detailing 800 prescriptions and 700 drugs.
  • Edwin Smith Papyrus (1600 B.C):
    • Surgical instructions and cosmetic formulas.
  • Kahun Medical Papyrus (1900 B.C):
    • Oldest and related to women's health including birthing instructions.

Ayurvedic Writing

  • Mentioning medicinal plants (ricinus, pepper, lily, valerian).
  • Organized into three main parts (Caraka Samhita being most important), and three minor parts (Sarrngadhara Samhita, Bhava Prakasa Samhita, and Madhava Nidanam Samhita).

Other Asian Traditional Medicine - Jamu

  • Indonesian traditional medicine practiced from 800 CE to 900 CE.
  • Kalpataruh leaves ("the tree that never dies") used to make medicines.
  • Important Manuscripts: Serat kawruh bab jampi-jampi ('A treatise on all manner of cures') and Serat Centhini ('Book of Centhini').

Remedies from Indonesia

  • Included in Jamu: cloves, nutmeg, Java tea, jambul, galangal.
  • These plants are still used globally for medicinal and culinary purposes.

King Ashurbanipal

  • 668-626 B.C
  • Suggested Sumerians traded crude drugs by 2500B.C.
  • Assyrians in 660 B.C recognized, discovered, and cultivated 250 drugs.

Ancient Greece and Rome

  • Hippocrates (460–377 BC): "The Father of Medicine".
  • Aristotle (384–322 BC): Student of Plato. Cataloged over 500 plants and their medicinal uses.
  • Theophrastus (370-287 B.C): Wrote De Historia Plantarum and De Causis Plantarum detailing different plants and how they were used medicinally and grown.
  • Krateus (c. 100 B.C): First herbalist to produce an illustrated work on medicinal plants.
  • Pedanios Dioscorides (40–80 AD): Composed De Materia Medica (500 medicinal plants).
  • Pliny the Elder (23–70 A.D): Compiled Natural History containing a substantial collection of plants from the Roman Period.
  • Claudius Galen (2nd Century AD): Codified drug preparation using multiple ingredients by mechanical means ("Galenicals").
  • Materia Medica: Medicinal materials and substances derived from natural sources.

Middle Ages

  • Ibn Sina (980–1037): Important contributor to Pharmacy and Medicine, author of Book of Healing (Kitab Al-Shifa) and Canon of Medicine.
  • Ibn Albitar (770–850):
  • Worked primarily in the area of medicine and pharmacy, detailing properties of many medicinal herbs.
  • Ibn Albitar (1148–1197): Detailed a treatise on cures and other remedies.

Separation of Pharmacy and Medicine

  • 1240 AD, Sicily and southern Italy separated pharmacy from medicine.
  • Frederick II of Hohenstaufen introduced the first European edict separating pharmacy from medicine, regulating pharmacists' professional practice.

Anglo-Saxon Leechcraft

  • Herbarium Apuleius and the Leech Book of Bald contain numerous formulas and herbal remedies.
  • Family Myddvai practiced herbalism, documented by physicians of Myddvai.

Monasti Pharmacy

  • During the Middle Ages, knowledge was preserved in monasteries.
  • Monks cultivated, translated, and copied manuscripts in monastery libraries.
  • Herbs were prepared based on apothecary practices.

The Renaissance

  • Otto Brunfels.
  • Hiernonymus Bock

The First Official Pharmacopoeia

  • De Nuovo Receptario - First official pharmacopoeia, originating in Florence, Italy.
  • Published in 1498, serving as the legal standard for the city-state.

Medicine at the Centre of the Americas

  • 1552, Martín de la Cruz, the Libellus de Medicinalibus Indorum Herbis (Little Book of the Medicinal Herbs of the Indians), detailing medicinal practices of indigenous people.
  • Quinine and D-tubocurarine are derived from South American plants.

Printed Reports in the European Tradition

  • 1617 established the Worshipful Society of Apothecaries in London.
  • 1673, Apothecaries formed their own garden of medicinal plants.
  • Nicholas Culpeper compiled Culpeper's herbal, 17th century.
  • Theophrastus Bombastus of Hohenheim (Paracelsus) introduced minerals into medical practice.

The 18th Century

  • Johann Adam Schmidt (1759-1809)
  • Carolus Linnaeus (plant naming and classification)
  • Crude drugs were used as powders, extracts, or tinctures near the end of the 18th century.

The Era of Pure Compounds

  • 1803, a new era in medicine started with drug isolation and identification.
  • Morphine from opium (1817).
  • Strychnine (1817), Quinine & Caffeine (1820), Nicotine (1828), Atropine (1833), Cocaine (1855).

19th Century

  • Chemical structures of isolated compounds were determined.
  • Progress in botany directly influenced pharmacognosy.

Early 19th Century

  • Development of the field of natural product chemistry, particularly phytochemistry.
  • Chemical properties of specific plants due to specific isolated molecules.

Pure Chemical Entities

  • Morphine from opium poppy (Papaver somniferum).
  • Salicin from willow bark (Salix spp.).
  • Quinine from cinchona bark (Cinchona succirubra).

Other Chemical Entities

  • Atropine from belladonna (Atropa belladonna).
  • Caffeine from coffee shrub (Coffea arabica and Coffea canephora).
  • Coniine from hemlock (Conium maculatum).
  • Emetine from ipecacuanha (Cephaelis ipecacuanha and Carapichea ipecacuanha), used for medications
  • Strychnine from nux-vomica (Strychnos spp) traditionally used as a tonic and stimulant.

Claude Bernard

  • Conducted detailed studies on the pharmacological effects of plant extracts.
  • Studied curare, an arrow poison from the Amazon
  • Demonstrated that death from curare was due to muscle paralysis, not nervous system issues.

20th Century

  • Animal kingdom; microorganisms were incorporated.
  • Work in phytochemistry resulted in a distinct branch of science.
  • Constituents were semi-synthesized and used as models for synthetic drugs.
  • Antibacterial properties of fungal metabolites discovered, including penicillin (1928).

1915 onwards

  • Large number of natural products or derivatives were introduced as medicines, including anti-cancer agents (e.g., paclitaxel), vinca alkaloids, antimalarial agents (artemisinin), galanthamine.

How Drug Information Was Stored

  • Baked clay tablets (cuneiform tablets)
  • Parchments
  • Manuscript herbals
  • Printed herbals
  • Pharmacopeias
  • Electronic storage

British Pharmacognosy

  • Jonathan Pereira (1804–1853) - Founded British pharmacognosy.
  • Daniel Hanbury (1825–1850) - Outstanding applied pharmacognosist.
  • E. M. Holmes (1843–1930) - Applied pharmacognosist.
  • H. G. Greenish (1855-1933) and T. E. Wallis (1876–1973) transformed pharmacognosy by eliminating adulteration from drugs.

Philippine Pharmacognosy

-Magdalena C. Cantoria (1924–2008) - Researched morphology, physiology, and biochemistry of drug plants.

  • Her research was particularly on the pharmacognosy of agar, rauwolfia, datura, mint, and piper species.

William Withering

  • Discovered the use of digitalis and documented in "An Account of The Foxglove and Some Medicinal Uses."
  • In 1785, the first active ingredient of digitalis was isolated and termed digitoxin.

Friedrich Wilhelm Adam Sertürner

  • Isolated the first narcotic principle in opium, termed morphine and proved alkaloids' importance.

Joseph-Bieniamin Caventou and Pierre-Joseph Pelletier

  • Isolated Emetine-Ipecacuanha, Strychnine & Brucine-Nux Vomica, Quinine & Cinchonine-Cinchona barks.

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