Introduction to Pathology

A state of low thyroid hormone activity, leading to various symptoms including weight gain, lethargy, and cold intolerance.

A condition caused by excessive thyroid hormone levels, resulting in a hyperactive metabolism and symptoms like increased heart rate, weight loss, and nervousness.

A type of hyperthyroidism caused by an overactive thyroid gland, often due to an autoimmune response.

A condition where the parathyroid glands produce too much parathyroid hormone (PTH), causing increased calcium levels in the blood.

A state of low parathyroid hormone (PTH) production, leading to low calcium levels in the blood.

A condition characterized by low blood calcium levels. Common causes include intestinal malabsorption, vitamin D deficiency, reduced vitamin D production, and inhibition of bone resorption.

Involuntary muscle contractions that can be triggered by low calcium levels. It can manifest as laryngospasm, bronchospasm, and tetany.

A clinical sign of hypocalcaemia where tapping on the facial nerve anterior to the ear causes twitching of the circumoral muscles.

A clinical sign of hypocalcaemia where inflation of a blood pressure cuff induces carpal spasm.

A condition characterized by a pH below 7.35. Can be caused by an imbalance in the body's acid-base balance.

A condition characterized by a pH above 7.45. Due to the buildup of base in the body.

Type of acidosis caused by an inadequate elimination of CO2 from the lungs.

A condition characterized by insufficient blood supply to meet the heart's metabolic needs.

A sudden occurrence of heart problems caused by reduced blood flow to the heart. It can happen in people with existing heart issues or those without any prior symptoms.

The most common cause of ACS, where a plaque buildup in a coronary artery ruptures, triggering blood clot formation and obstructing blood flow.

A less common cause of ACS where a plaque buildup weakens and bleeds or bleeds through its outer layer, causing it to bulge and obstruct blood flow.

A temporary constriction of a coronary artery, reducing blood flow. It can be triggered by factors like drugs, stress, or cold.

A type of chest pain that occurs predictably with exertion and resolves with rest. It indicates a partial blockage in a coronary artery, but not a full-blown heart attack.

A more serious form of chest pain that can occur even at rest or with minimal exertion. It represents a greater obstruction of blood flow and is a warning sign of an impending heart attack.

A serious consequence of ACS where prolonged blockage leads to heart muscle cell death, causing permanent damage to the heart.

Heart muscle cells that survive a heart attack may not function properly, leading to reduced heart pump capacity and potential heart failure.

High blood pressure that significantly increases the risk of a blood vessel in the brain rupturing, causing bleeding.

Bleeding within the brain (intracerebral) or surrounding spaces (subarachnoid) due to a ruptured blood vessel.

Deposits of lipids or proteins that leak into retinal tissue, caused by damage to blood vessels due to chronic hypertension.

Abnormally low blood pressure, often caused by blood loss, shock, or heart attack.

A sudden drop in blood pressure upon standing, often in the elderly, caused by delayed response of pressure receptors.

Cells that are constantly dividing with a high turnover rate and excellent regenerative ability.

Cells that have a low turnover rate but can regenerate if needed. Examples include liver, kidney, and pancreas.

Cells that don't regenerate and are replaced by scar tissue if damaged. Examples include neurons and cardiac muscle cells.

An increase in the size of cells without cell division. It occurs when cells grow larger due to increased workload or stimulation.

A type of hypertrophy that occurs in response to normal physiological demands, like muscle growth after exercise.

A type of hypertrophy that occurs abnormally, often due to disease or excessive stress. For example, when the heart works harder due to high blood pressure.

An increase in the number of cells due to cell division. It can occur normally or abnormally.

A type of hyperplasia that occurs normally during development or growth. For example, breast tissue growth during pregnancy.

A type of hyperplasia that occurs abnormally, often due to disease. For example, an enlarged prostate in men.

A decrease in the size of a tissue or organ due to a reduction in the size or number of cells.

A developmental failure resulting in a smaller than normal organ or tissue. It's often due to problems during development.

Chronic inflammation in the digestive tract, especially the stomach and intestines, can lead to precancerous changes, increasing the risk of cancer.

A common bacterial infection that increases the risk of gastric cancer. It can be effectively treated with antibiotics.

A type of gastritis caused by autoimmune reactions directed at the stomach lining. It often leads to vitamin B12 deficiency due to damage to parietal cells.

Inflammation of the stomach lining caused by factors like bile reflux or medication.

A condition characterized by ulcers in the lining of the stomach or duodenum, often caused by an imbalance between stomach acid and protective mechanisms. A common cause is H. pylori infection.