Introduction to Molecular Biology and Diagnostics

The study of the structure, function, and composition of nucleic acids, explaining how genes influence protein production.

The study of the chemical processes and composition of living things, including carbohydrates, lipids, nucleotides, and proteins.

The study of genes, their functions, and how traits are passed through generations.

The study of cells, their structure, function, and regulation.

The study of the physical properties of matter, from molecules to subatomic particles, in biological systems.

The fundamental principle that explains how genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to create proteins.

Practical uses of molecular biology, ranging from biotechnology to disease research.

Versions of an element with the same number of protons but different numbers of neutrons.

A molecule with an uneven distribution of charge, resulting in a positive and negative end due to differences in electronegativity.

A molecule with an even distribution of charge, lacking distinct positive and negative ends. Examples include hydrocarbons and diatomic elements.

A covalent bond that links carbohydrate molecules together, forming larger structures like polysaccharides.

Cyclic adenosine monophosphate (cAMP) and guanosine triphosphate (GTP) are important intracellular signaling molecules involved in various cellular processes.

DNA that has lost its normal structure, often due to heat or chemicals. This leads to a hyperchromic effect, meaning an increase in absorbance of UV light.

A technique used by Rosalind Franklin to study the structure of DNA, revealing its helical shape.

A classic experiment that confirmed DNA as the genetic material, using radioactive labeling to track the movement of DNA and protein during viral infection.

A segment of DNA that contains the information for coding a specific protein or RNA molecule. It represents a functional unit involved in transcription.

A type of point mutation where a single nucleotide change results in a different amino acid being incorporated into the protein.

A point mutation that changes a codon to a stop codon, prematurely terminating protein translation.

A point mutation that doesn't change the amino acid sequence, due to redundancy in the genetic code.

A condition where an organism has an abnormal number of chromosomes; can lead to genetic disorders.

A pattern of inheritance where a single copy of a mutated gene from one parent is sufficient to cause the disorder.

A pattern of inheritance where two copies of a mutated gene, one from each parent, are required for the disorder to develop.

A pattern of inheritance where a single copy of a mutated gene on the X chromosome causes the disorder in both males and females.

A pattern of inheritance where a mutated gene on the X chromosome causes the disorder in males, while females are typically carriers.

A specific DNA sequence that signals the start of a gene and allows RNA polymerase to bind and initiate transcription.

A six-nucleotide sequence (TATAAT) found in prokaryotic promoters, located approximately 10 bases upstream of the transcription start site.

A six-nucleotide sequence (TTGACA) found in prokaryotic promoters, located approximately 35 bases upstream of the transcription start site.

A six-nucleotide sequence (TATAAA) found in eukaryotic promoters, located approximately 25 bases upstream of the transcription start site.

A purine-rich sequence (AGGAGG) found in prokaryotic mRNA, that binds to the small ribosomal subunit, aligning the mRNA for translation.

The addition of a 7-methylguanosine cap to the 5' end of a eukaryotic mRNA transcript.

A sequence of adenine nucleotides added to the 3' end of eukaryotic mRNA transcripts.

The removal of non-coding sequences (introns) from the eukaryotic pre-mRNA transcript, leaving only the exons that code for protein.

The repeated steps in PCR (denaturation, annealing, extension) that amplify a specific DNA sequence.

A graph that shows the temperature at which double-stranded DNA separates into single strands during PCR. It helps determine the melting temperature of the DNA.

A technique that combines reverse transcription and PCR to amplify RNA into DNA.

Weak bands on an agarose gel indicate low amounts of PCR product.

A rapid and isothermal DNA amplification method that uses a DNA polymerase with high strand displacement activity and specific primers.

A method to amplify RNA to DNA using reverse transcription, followed by amplification by T7 RNA polymerase.

A technique that amplifies a target DNA sequence by using oligonucleotides and a thermostable ligase.

Unwanted bands on an agarose gel indicating amplification of non-target DNA sequences.

A pre-mixed solution containing essential components for PCR, including buffer, dNTPs, primers, MgCl2, DNA polymerase, and water.

A heat-stable DNA polymerase used in PCR, isolated from the bacterium Thermus aquaticus.

A device used in PCR that controls temperature cycles to amplify DNA.

The first step in PCR where DNA strands are separated by heat.

The second step in PCR where primers bind to the separated DNA strands.

The third step in PCR where DNA polymerase extends the primers, creating new DNA strands.

A PCR technique that uses a fluorescent probe to detect specific DNA sequences.

Different types of samples used in PCR to monitor reaction effectiveness and contamination.

The study of how genes influence protein production by looking at the structure, function, and composition of nucleic acids. It's basically understanding how the blueprint of life (DNA) gets translated into the building blocks of our bodies (proteins).

The study of the chemical composition and properties of living matter. It explores how chemical processes within living things work, including the roles of carbs, lipids, nucleotides, and proteins.

The study of genes, their functions, and how traits are passed from generation to generation. It examines how our inherited information influences who we are.

The fundamental principle that explains how genetic information flows from DNA to RNA to create proteins. It's the core process of molecular biology, guiding how our genes dictate our characteristics and how we function.

Versions of an element that have the same number of protons but differ in the number of neutrons. They're like siblings in a family of elements, with the same identity but slight variations.

Practical uses of molecular biology range from developing new drugs and vaccines to understanding diseases, improving agriculture, and even investigating crime.

The study of the separation, identification, and quantification of chemical substances. It's like a detective in the world of chemistry, figuring out what's in a sample and how much of it is there.

Covalent Bonds are crucial, where atoms share electrons to create molecules. These bonds are the building blocks of complex molecules in our bodies.

A process where DNA segments break and recombine, producing new combinations of alleles. This involves swapping genetic material.

An enzyme that unwinds the DNA double helix, separating the two strands by breaking hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases.

An enzyme that relieves the torsional stress caused by unwinding DNA during replication. It cuts and rejoins the DNA strands to prevent tangles.

A signal-based amplification technique where the signal from luminescence is used to detect nucleotides.

An enzyme that joins (ligates) short DNA fragments, sealing breaks in the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA.

A gene-editing technology that uses a guide RNA to target and modify specific DNA sequences.

A small, circular DNA molecule that replicates independently of the main chromosome in bacteria. Often used in genetic engineering for vectors.

Small interfering RNA, a type of RNA that can silence gene expression by targeting messenger RNA for degradation.

MicroRNA, a small non-coding RNA molecule that regulates gene expression by binding to messenger RNA and inhibiting translation.

A monoclonal antibody that targets HER2, a growth factor receptor involved in cancer development, inhibiting its activity.

A drug that inhibits VKORC1, an enzyme essential for vitamin K activation, preventing blood clotting.

An antiplatelet drug that inhibits ADP binding to its platelet receptor, preventing platelet aggregation.

A chimeric protein produced by a gene rearrangement in chronic myelogenous leukemia (CML), leading to increased tyrosine kinase activity and uncontrolled cell growth.

An enzyme found in retroviruses that converts RNA into DNA. It uses its polymerase and RNase H activity to create a double-stranded DNA copy of the virus's RNA genome.

An enzyme that adds repetitive DNA sequences (telomeres) to the ends of chromosomes to prevent their shortening during DNA replication. Without it, cells would age prematurely.

Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor. These antiviral drugs block the activity of reverse transcriptase, preventing the formation of viral DNA and stopping viral replication.

Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor. These antiviral drugs bind to a different site on reverse transcriptase, preventing the enzyme from working properly.

An enzyme that uses RNA as a template to synthesize new RNA molecules. This is essential for replication in RNA viruses.

Telomeres are protective 'caps' at the ends of chromosomes. They prevent the loss of genetic information during DNA replication, which would otherwise occur as chromosomes shorten over time.

Remdesivir is an antiviral drug that acts as a chain terminator. It inhibits RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, preventing the replication of viral RNA. This is used to treat viral infections like COVID-19.

Unlike DNA viruses, RNA viruses can mutate quickly, making them more likely to develop resistance to drugs. This can make it challenging to develop treatments that are effective and lasting.

The initial stage of a molecular biology experiment involving sample collection, transport, and preparation.

The core part of a molecular biology experiment where the sample is analyzed, usually involving PCR and electrophoresis.

The final stage in a molecular biology experiment where results are verified, documented, and communicated.

The essential ingredients for a PCR reaction, including buffer, dNTPs, primers, polymerase, and water.

Different types of samples used in PCR to monitor reaction effectiveness and contamination.

A chemical bond formed by the sharing of electrons between two atoms. This sharing creates a strong attraction, holding the atoms together in a molecule.

A weaker interaction between molecules that does not involve the sharing of electrons. Examples include hydrogen bonds and van der Waals forces.

A chemical reaction that breaks down a molecule by adding water.

A Y-shaped structure formed during DNA replication where the double helix is unwound, creating leading and lagging strands.

An enzyme that unwinds the DNA double helix, separating the two strands by breaking hydrogen bonds between the nitrogenous bases.

The strand of DNA that is synthesized continuously in the 5' to 3' direction during DNA replication.

The strand of DNA that is synthesized discontinuously in short fragments (Okazaki fragments) in the 5' to 3' direction during DNA replication.

A short RNA sequence that is required by DNA polymerase to initiate DNA synthesis.

An enzyme that joins (ligates) short DNA fragments, sealing breaks in the sugar-phosphate backbone of DNA.

Short, discontinuous fragments of DNA synthesized on the lagging strand during DNA replication.

dATP, dCTP, dGTP, and dTTP. These are deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates, containing the four nitrogenous bases (adenine, cytosine, guanine, and thymine) and a deoxyribose sugar.

The addition of a string of adenine nucleotides (poly-A tail) to the 3' end of an mRNA molecule. This tail helps protect the mRNA from enzymatic degradation and facilitates protein binding.

Ribosomes move along the mRNA strand in the 5' to 3' direction during protein synthesis, reading the codons and adding amino acids to the growing polypeptide chain.

A stop codon (UAA, UAG, or UGA) is a sequence of three nucleotides in mRNA that signals the end of protein translation. Release factors recognize these codons and terminate the process.

An enzyme that attaches the correct amino acid to its corresponding tRNA molecule. This process is crucial for accurate protein synthesis.

An enzymatic activity found in the large ribosomal subunit that catalyzes the formation of peptide bonds between amino acids during protein synthesis.

An antibiotic that inhibits peptidyl transferase, blocking protein synthesis in bacteria.

An antibiotic that inhibits the binding of aminoacyl-tRNAs to the A site of the ribosome, preventing further protein synthesis in bacteria.

Antiviral drugs that block the activity of reverse transcriptase, preventing the formation of viral DNA and stopping viral replication.

Antiviral drugs that bind to a different site on reverse transcriptase, preventing the enzyme from working properly.

An antiviral drug that inhibits RNA-dependent RNA polymerase, preventing the replication of viral RNA.

A technique used to separate very large DNA molecules (like entire genomes) by applying an electric field that changes direction periodically. It's considered the gold standard for bacterial typing.

A process that combines DNA from different sources, such as a gene of interest inserted into a vector, creating a recombinant molecule. This allows for amplification and production of the inserted DNA in host cells.

Enzymes that recognize and cut DNA at specific sequences; naturally found in bacteria as defense against viral pathogens.

A method for DNA sequencing that uses chemical modification and cleavage of DNA at specific bases. It involves using different chemicals to break DNA at specific nucleotide positions.

A method for DNA sequencing that uses dideoxy nucleotides (ddNTPs) to terminate DNA synthesis, creating fragments of different lengths that can be used to determine the DNA sequence.

The first step in PCR where DNA is heated to separate the two strands. This allows the primers to bind to the single-stranded DNA.

The second step in PCR where primers bind to the single-stranded DNA at specific target sequences.

The third step in PCR where DNA polymerase extends the primers, creating new DNA strands complementary to the template strands.

A genetic rearrangement where a portion of chromosome 18, containing the BCL-2 gene, is swapped with a portion of chromosome 14, containing the immunoglobulin heavy chain gene. This leads to overexpression of BCL-2, inhibiting programmed cell death in B cells.

A protein that inhibits apoptosis (programmed cell death) by blocking the pathway that leads to cell destruction.

Mutations in these genes, responsible for producing tumor suppressor proteins, can lead to increased cell division and impaired DNA repair, increasing cancer risk.

The process of transferring a plasmid (a small, circular DNA molecule) from one bacterium to another, often through conjugation.

A group of genes that are regulated together, allowing for coordinated control of gene expression in response to environmental changes.

A technique used to study protein-protein interactions. It involves fusing proteins to yeast transcription factors to see if they interact and activate gene expression.

The genetic material of the HIV-1 virus, which consists of RNA and encodes proteins essential for viral replication and infection.

The receptor-binding domain (RBD) of the SARS-CoV-2 virus's spike protein, responsible for binding to the ACE2 receptor on human cells, initiating infection.

A separation technique that uses a porous gel matrix to separate molecules based on their size. Smaller molecules can enter the pores and are retained longer, while larger molecules pass through faster.

A type of gel commonly used in electrophoresis to separate DNA molecules. Its pore size can be adjusted by varying the agarose concentration.

A type of gel used in electrophoresis to separate proteins. Its pore size can be adjusted by varying the acrylamide and bis-acrylamide concentration.

The process where two complementary DNA or RNA sequences bind to each other, forming a double helix. This is used in various molecular biology techniques.

Fluorescence In Situ Hybridization. A technique that uses fluorescent probes to identify specific DNA sequences on chromosomes.

A technique that analyzes the number and structure of chromosomes in a cell. It's used to identify chromosomal abnormalities.

High-Performance Liquid Chromatography. A technique that separates and analyzes compounds based on their different affinities to a stationary phase.

A technique that measures the mass-to-charge ratio of molecules. This information is used to identify and quantify the compounds present in a sample.

Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor. A type of antiviral drug that blocks the activity of reverse transcriptase, preventing the formation of viral DNA.

Non-Nucleoside Reverse Transcriptase Inhibitor. An antiviral drug that binds to a different site on reverse transcriptase to prevent it from working properly.

Telomeres are protective 'caps' at the ends of chromosomes. They prevent the loss of genetic information during DNA replication.

RNA viruses can mutate quickly, making them more likely to develop resistance to drugs. This makes it challenging to create effective and lasting treatments.

A technique that separates cellular components based on their density and size using different centrifugal forces. It's used in molecular biology laboratories to isolate specific organelles or molecules.

BioSafety Levels (BSL) classify laboratories based on the risk associated with the work conducted. Higher BSL levels require more stringent safety protocols and specialized facilities.

A type of density gradient centrifugation where particles are separated based on their density, using a gradient of a dense medium.

The process of extracting RNA from cells or tissues. It's important to prevent RNA degradation by using chemicals like dithiothreitol and diethylpyrocarbonate.

Breaking down proteins into smaller peptides using specific enzymes called proteases. Each protease targets different amino acid sequences.

A purification technique that separates molecules based on their specific binding affinity to a ligand attached to a solid matrix.

A chromatography technique that separates molecules based on their charge. Positively charged molecules bind to negatively charged resins and vice versa.

A genetic abnormality where the BCL2 gene on chromosome 18 fuses with the immunoglobulin heavy chain gene on chromosome 14. This leads to overproduction of the BCL2 protein, which prevents apoptosis (programmed cell death) in B cells. This is a hallmark of follicular lymphoma.

Mutations in these genes disrupt the production of tumor suppressor proteins, which normally regulate cell division and repair damaged DNA. These mutations can increase the risk of developing certain cancers, particularly breast and ovarian cancers.

A group of genes regulated together in bacteria. The lac operon, for example, controls the expression of genes involved in lactose metabolism. The presence of allolactose, a lactose derivative, acts as an inducer, turning on the operon.

The genetic material of the SARS-CoV-2 virus, responsible for causing COVID-19. It is an RNA virus with a genome encoding multiple proteins, including the spike protein that binds to the ACE2 receptor on human cells for entry.

A portion of the SARS-CoV-2 spike protein that binds to the ACE2 receptor on human cells. This interaction is essential for the virus to enter and infect cells.