hard questions

Introduction to Industrial and Organizational (I/O) Psychology

• I/O Psychology applies psychological methods to improve workplace individual and group behavior.
• Data comes in various forms, including surveys, interviews, observations, and organizational records.
• Organizations are social entities with common goals and structured frameworks.
• Effective organizations show higher productivity and superior customer service, achieving greater financial success than less effective ones.
• I/O Psychology impacts employee job satisfaction and sense of fulfillment.

Nature and Importance of I/O Psychology

• I/O Psychology uses data-based methods to study and resolve organizational issues.
• Organizational processes impact daily life, affecting important aspects like food, housing, and transport.

Types of Organizations

• Formal organizations have clearly defined purposes, continuity, and examples include businesses, nonprofits, government agencies, and universities.
• Informal organizations lack explicit purposes and continuity, such as friend groups.
• I/O Psychology primarily focuses on formal organizations, but also considers informal processes like friendships.

Dual Focus

• I/O Psychology focuses on organizational efficiency and productivity to increase organizational output.

Industrial Side of I/O Psychology

• This side focuses on human resource management, encompassing recruitment, selection, classification, compensation, performance appraisal, and training.

Organizational Side of I/O Psychology

• This side aims to understand and predict behavior in organizational settings, including socialization, motivation, occupational stress, leadership, group performance, and organizational development.

Key Themes in I/O Psychology

• The scientific-practitioner model integrates scientific knowledge with practical application through internships and projects.

Historical Context

• Frederick Taylor developed scientific management to boost employee productivity.
• World War I saw the introduction of I/O psychology in military settings, including the development of mental aptitude tests.
• The period between World Wars saw expansion into employee and productivity issues, and significant research.
• The Hawthorne studies highlighted the significance of social factors in productivity.
• World War II further developed I/O psychology focusing on employee selection, training, performance appraisal, and team development, and the formation of SIOP.

Contemporary Themes and Challenges

• Ethics and social responsibility are crucial in I/O.

Globalization and Cross-Cultural Issues

• Adapting practices to diverse workforces is key.
• Environmental and sustainability concerns are important.

Technological Change

• Technological advances change operations, creating a balance between work and non-work life.

Counterproductive Behavior in Organizations

• Actions that hinder organizational goals, may be intentional or unintentional, and have different causes needing varied solutions. Addressing lack of job satisfaction or fairness are essential.

Theories of Motivation

• Campbell's motivation model incorporates declarative knowledge, procedural skill, and motivation.
• Mitchell's model includes motivation, ability, and the environment as critical determinants of individual behavior.
• Theories like Maslow's hierarchy of needs, ERG theory, and McClelland's acquired needs theories explain individual motivations at work.

Equity Theory

• Fairness is judged by comparing one's inputs and outcomes to others.
• To restore equity perceptions, different strategies are employed, including changes in inputs, outputs, and standards.

Expectancy Theory

• This theory suggests that motivation is based on effort, performance, and reward.

Goal-Setting Theory

• Effectively setting goals helps to direct attention, maintain persistence, and develop task strategies.

Behavioral Approach to Motivation

• This approach highlights the negative consequences of punishment (stress, diminished trust, resistance) and the positive impacts of reinforcement (learning, motivation).

Job-Based Theories of Motivation

• Motivator-hygiene theory suggests that motivation is driven by job content, while hygiene factors (conditions, pay, security), prevent dissatisfaction.

Productive Behavior in Organizations

• Organizational Citizenship Behavior (OCB) includes voluntary behaviors not formally part of job descriptions, like collaboration and helping others.
• Job performance is a multi-faceted concept that varies dynamically over time
• Models (Campbell, Murphy) distinguish between task-oriented and extra-role/contextual job performance.

Innovation in Organizations

• Employee attributes like task-relevant skills and creativity and organizational factors like technical knowledge are important for successful organizational innovation.

Instability of Job Performance

• Job performance varies over time, impacted by dynamic situations and changes in tasks or responsibilities.