Introduction to Ethics

Terms Used in Ethics

• Nicomachean Ethics was explored by Aristotle in the 4th century BCE, involving eudaimonia (flourishing or living well).
• The Republic, written by Plato, includes ethical theories like justice.
• Metaethics explores the nature and origin of ethical principles.
• Normative ethics provides guidelines for determining moral rightness.
• Applied ethics addresses specific moral issues in fields such as business, medicine, and technology.

Introduction to Ethics

• Ethics is a branch of philosophy that deals with right and wrong conduct.
• Ethics gives outlines of moral duties and obligations.
• Ethics involves studying values, moral principles, and action justification based on concepts like duty, virtue, and consequences.

Origin of the Word "Ethics"

• Ethics originates from the Greek word "Ethos," meaning "Character" (‫)ﺷﺧﺻﯾﺔ‬.
• The Oxford Dictionary defines ethics as "the science of morals in human conduct" and "a set of moral principles or values that govern behaviour."
• Ethics is the science of morality of conduct, dealing with proper and improper actions of human beings.
• The origin can be traced to ancient philosophical inquiries into morality and human conduct.
• Aristotle's "Nicomachean Ethics," written in the 4th century BCE, explores eudaimonia and introduced virtue ethics.
• Ancient philosophers like Socrates and Plato contributed to ethical discourse.
• Ethics can be traced to philosophical traditions, religious teachings, and cultural norms.
• Ethics deals with principles of right and wrong, moral duty, and consequences.
• It serves as a framework for evaluating and guiding human behavior based on principles that promote goodness, virtue, and well-being.
• Ethics explores if something is right or wrong, just or unjust, fair or unfair, to provide a rational approach to making moral judgments.
• Ethical principles guide individuals, organizations, and societies in moral dilemmas.
• Principles includes honesty, integrity, fairness, justice, responsibility, and respect.
• Branches of ethics: metaethics, normative ethics, and applied ethics.
• Ethical theories like utilitarianism, deontology, virtue ethics, and relativism offer perspectives to approach moral questions and dilemmas.
• Ethics provide frameworks for individuals and societies to evaluate and justify their ethical beliefs and actions (Rachels, 2019).
• Key dimensions: moral bases of good and bad, rights and responsibilities, and guidance for living a good life.

Nature of Ethics

• Ethics is a normative ( ‫ ) ﻣﻌﯾﺎري‬science, unlike exact sciences.
• Ethics is based on society's norms ( ‫) اﻟﻣﻌﺎﯾﯾر‬, which change over time.
• It determines norms, ideals, and standards to judge human actions as right or wrong, good or bad.
• It evaluates actions and behavior to discover what should be and to regulate right and wrong conduct.
• Ethics is a field of social science, studying moral behavior and conduct at individual and social levels.

Conditions Before Judging People’s Actions

• Ethics applies to humans with freedom of choice and free will.
• Ethics deals with: voluntary actions that are not forced and also conscious, deliberate human conduct.

Sources of Ethics

• Every society has its concepts of right and wrong.
• Sources include religions, traditions, cultures, and philosophies.
• Religions have codes of ethics and values practiced by followers.
• The Holy Qur’an and Sunnah provide the ethical bases in Islam.
• Ethics in Islam covers all aspects of Muslim life.
• Traditions, cultures, and philosophies shape ethics and values worldwide.

Ethical Relativism Theory

• System in which no principles are universally valid.
• Principles are relative to cultural standards.
• Considers differences between cultures and societies.
• There cannot be a universal standard of right and wrong
• Each society can decide what is right.
• No culture is better than any other
• Taking it to extreme, each person has a right to decide what is right and wrong.
• Main forms : cultural and individual relativism (Harman, 1975).

Cultural Relativism

• Moral values are culturally determined, contingent on cultural norms and practices.
• No objective standard exists for evaluating moral practices across cultures.
• Acceptability of arranged marriages are relative to the cultural context
• Vary attitudes toward personal space, for example close physical proximity during conversations is normal between cultures
• Cultural relativism acknowledges what is perceived as appropriate in terms of personal space can vary.

Individual Relativsm

• Extends relativism to individual beliefs, holding moral judgments are subjective
• Moral judgments vary from person to person.
• Each person has their own moral code, with no universal evaluation standard.
• Some prioritize professional life, dedicating long hours while others personal life, seeking work-life balance
• Individual relativism acknowledges what constitutes a satisfactory work-life balance can differ based on values and priorities.
• Individual relativism is in attitudes toward risk-taking, as individuals may be naturally inclined to taking significant risks.

Implications of Theory Types

• Cultural Relativism Strength is that it brings tolerance of other cultures and keeps societies from falling apart, but a Weakness it confuses what ought to be done with what is done.
• An Ethical egoism’s Theory Strength does not rule out helping others and can support social morality, its weakness is that it limits the development and responsibilities to others.

Teleological Ethical Theory

• Also known as Consequentialist Theory
• Moral frameworks that focus on the actions' outcomes or consequences.
• Morality of an action is its consequences' goodness or utility.
• Unlike Deontological theories which Prioritize the goals and result actions produce.

Ethical Egoism

• All people should act from their own self-interest.
• Is considered ethical if the self-interest is accomplished.
• People should maximize happiness or well-being, fulfilling a moral obligation to pursue personal interests.
• Ethical decisions are only evaluated based on personal consequences (Rachels, J. 2019).
• Helps encourage a social morality by supporting conduct for the benefit of all
• However, it limits the development of self due to ignoring responsibilities to others, while also lacking the freedom to choose.

Utilitarian Philosophy

• An action is good if it results in maximized satisfaction for all.
• Requires maximization of pleasure and minimization of pain.
• Focus on consequences when deciding what is ethical or unethical.
• Jeremy Bentham and John Stuart Mill proposed: the morally right action is to maximize happiness and minimize suffering for the greatest number.
• Also known as “Greatest good for the greatest number.”
• Attempts to lessens human suffering.
• However one person could benefit while another's evil
• It is difficult to predict accurately all consequences and the theory ignores justice

Deontological Theory

• Deontology focuses on the rightness and wrongness of actions, not consequences.
• Actions and their outcomes are independent things and decision should be based on factors of one's duties and rights.
• Actions are inherently right or wrong, regardless of outcome.
• Grounded in moral duties or obligations.
• Kantian Ethics posits duties from principles that are used universally.
• If everyone lied, trust would collapse, rendering the act of lying as self-defeating.

Natural Law Ethics

• Thomas Aquinas posits objective moral principles exist in human nature and natural order.
• Actions aligning with these principles are morally right and actions that violate them are wrong.
• Natural law ethics might determine the preservation of life, thus actions such as murder are inherently wrong.

Virtue Ethical Theory

• Focuses on person's inherent character rather than the nature and results of conduct.
• Assumes ideals exist to strive towards, leading to full human development.
• Ideals discovered using thoughtful reflection.
• Examples are honesty, courage and compassion.
• People are judged by their character and honesty is a trait
• If a wise and respectful person committed unethical conduct, their history may be used to justify their guilt.
• Person should consider what traits person would approach the situation.
• Morals are assumed to be internalized but difficult to apply in different communities.

Common Good Theory

• Action and decision are ethical if it advances the common good (i.e the one that contributes to the achievement of quality).
• Ensures social policies, systems, institutions and environment are beneficial.
• An ethical framework that emphasizes the importance of promoting the well-being and interests of the entire community or society.

Features of the Theory

• Promotes a common quality of life to all members and no one can be easily excluded from the enjoyment.
• Is inconsistent in a pluralistic society.
• Example of Common good implementation examples would be health care systems, and economic systems for all members

Fairness/Justice Theory

• States that “All equals should be treated equally and unequal’s unequally.”
• Focuses on principles of equity, impartiality, and fair treatment.
• It deals with the distribution of benefits and burdens and establishment rules that govern.

Implemented Justice Types

• Distributive Justice: Concerned with the appropriate distribution of resources.
• Retributive Justice: Fair punishment of wrongdoing.
• Restorative Justice: Emphasizes repairing harm and restoring relationships.

Divine Command Theory

• System where all moral standards depend on God, creator of divine law
• States that these laws come through revelations and sacred texts.
• An act according to divine law is right
• The theory asserts the ethicality of an action if it aligns to gods will.

The Rights Theory

• An action is morally right if it respects the rights of all humans
• Based on principles of right.
• People must be legally free to to do whatever they wish as long as they do not do not take the rights of others.
• Individual rights serve as ethical decision-making while moral actions must uphold rights.
• Inherent rights: rights are inherent by virtue of humanity and are fundamental .
• This values individual rights to freedom of choice and respecting decision-making .