Introduction to Chemistry Basics

Introduction to Chemistry

• Chemistry is the study of substances, their composition and properties, their interactions with other substances, and the chemical changes they undergo.
• Chemistry can be categorized into two branches:
  • Inorganic Chemistry: Focuses on substances not containing carbon.
  • Organic Chemistry: Concentrates on carbon-containing compounds.

Laboratory Apparatus

Basic Glassware

• Test Tube: Used for heating chemicals and studying reactions. Boiling tubes are made of pyrex and resist chemicals.
• Beaker: Holds, pours, and mixes solutions.
• Flasks: Available in various shapes for different functions.
  • Round bottom flask: Used for gas preparation involving heating.
  • Flat bottom flask: Used for gas preparation without heating.
  • Conical flask: Used for storing liquids and mixing solutions.
  • Retort: Used in distillation experiments, particularly for acids.

Holders for Glassware

• Test Tube Holder: Clamps onto a wooden handle for holding a test tube while heating.
• Test Tube Stand: Provides holes and pegs for upright storage of test tubes.
• Retort Stand: Supports flasks, retorts, and other apparatus during experiments; uses a movable clamp for adjustments.
• Tripod Stand: Supports glassware like flasks or retorts and the wire gauze.
• Wire Gauze: Placed between the tripod stand and glassware to prevent cracking from heat and distribute heat evenly.

Gas Apparatus

• Bunsen Burner: Is used to heat substances using a controlled flame.
• Thistle Funnel: Allows the entry of reactants into a round bottom flask.
• Delivery Tube: Transfers gases between apparatus and connects different pieces of glassware.
• Beehive Shelf: A clay vessel with outlets to collect gases in a gas jar by downward displacement of water.
• Gas Jar: A glass jar with one closed end and one open end for collecting gases using different methods.
  • Downward Displacement of Water: For gases insoluble or slightly soluble in water, such as nitrogen and oxygen. The gas jar is filled with water and inverted over the beehive shelf.
  • Downward Displacement of Air: For gases soluble in water and lighter than air, such as ammonia.
  • Upward Displacement of Air: For gases soluble in water and heavier than air, such as hydrogen chloride.
• Funnel: Used for pouring reactants into a thistle funnel or other vessels.

Measuring Apparatus

• Pipette: Measures liquid by sucking it up to a marked level and closing the open end.
• Burette: Measures liquid by pouring it from the top to a marked level.
• Measuring Cylinder: Measures liquid by filling to the marked level and pouring it out.

Importance of Chemistry

• Agriculture:

  • Fertilizers: Enhance soil fertility and provide plant nutrients for growth, such as ammonium nitrate and urea.
  • Pesticides: Control unwanted plants and harmful insects.
    • Herbicides: Kill or inhibit the growth of unwanted plants.
    • Insecticides: Destroy insects that harm plants. Pesticides can impact other living organisms and disrupt ecosystems.

• Products:

  • Food: Refined oils, butter, cheese, preservatives.
  • Construction: Mortar, cement, glass.
  • Clothing: Natural fabrics like silk and synthetic fabrics like terylene, nylon, rayon.
  • Household: Paints, dyes, perfumes, paper, ink, metals, alloys.
  • Industrial: Petroleum products like petrol, kerosene, diesel oil.

Historical Figures and Key Concepts

• Alchemists: Predated modern chemists, often incorporating occult and religious beliefs. They aimed to transform substances, particularly metals into gold, using seemingly magical processes.

• Philosopher's Stone: A legendary substance believed to turn inexpensive metals into gold and silver, also thought to be the elixir of life. It was a major goal of Western Alchemy, contributing to advancements in metal extraction and chemical processes.

• Dimitri Mendeleev (1834-1907): A Russian scientist who formulated the Periodic Table of Elements, systematically arranging elements and predicting properties of unknown elements. He is best known for his discovery of the Periodic Law.

• Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794): A French scientist credited with recognizing and naming oxygen in 1778 and hydrogen in 1783. He also wrote the first extensive list of elements and conducted a famous experiment using mercury to discover oxygen.

• John Dalton (1766-1844): An English scientist who proposed Dalton's Atomic Theory in 1803, stating that matter consists of indivisible particles called atoms that cannot be created or destroyed. This theory has been modified by the Modern Atomic Theory.

• Other Significant Chemists:

  • Van Helmont (1630): Discovered carbon dioxide by heating charcoal in air.
  • Glauber (1648): First prepared hydrogen chloride gas from sodium chloride and concentrated sulfuric acid, and later prepared nitric acid.
  • Joseph Priestley (1770): First prepared sulfur dioxide gas.

Applications of Chemistry in Various Fields

• Food Preservatives: Substances added to food or beverages to:

  • Prevent decomposition by bacteria or microbes.
  • Reduce risks of foodborne illnesses.
  • Preserve nutritional quality of food.
  • Common examples: Benzoic acid (jams, pickles, carbonated drinks), nitrates (meat products), sulfur compounds (beverages, wines).

• Food Processing: Involves transforming raw ingredients into usable forms through physical and chemical processes, including:

  • Mincing
  • Cooking
  • Pickling
  • Preservative addition
  • Canning
  • Packaging

• Cosmetics: Enhance or alter appearance or fragrance. They consist of chemical compounds derived from natural or synthetic sources:

  • Ingredients:
    • Water: Solvent for water-soluble ingredients.
    • Titanium Oxide: Provides mild sun protection.
    • Zinc and Iron Oxides: Pigments that add color and provide an even texture.
    • Emulsifiers: Combine water and oil.
    • Preservatives: Extend shelf life and prevent microbial growth.

• Clothing: Materials made from natural fibers (cotton, wool) or synthetic fibers (terylene, nylon, rayon):

  • Terylene (Polyester): Strong, elastic, resistant to friction, crease-resistant, washable, dries quickly. Used in garments, carpets, nets, ropes, hoses.
  • Rayon: A regenerated cellulose fiber used in carpets (blending with wool), bedsheets (blending with cotton).
  • Nylon: An artificial synthetic fiber used in fabrics, ropes, brushes, hooks, etc.

• Medicines: Natural or synthetic substances that affect the functioning of a living body to treat or prevent diseases.

  • Aspirin: For pain, fever, inflammation. May reduce heart attack death risk and blood clots. Side effects include stomach upset and ulcers.
  • Paracetamol: For mild to moderate pain and fever, also used for low back pain, headaches, and dental use. Safe at recommended doses but high doses can cause liver problems.
  • Other Medicines: Antacids for acidity, iron supplements, and vitamin B12 for anemia.

• Industries:

  • Cleansing Agents:
    • Soaps: Made from vegetable oils or animal fats.
    • Detergents: Synthetic cleaning agents made from petroleum products with sodium or potassium hydroxide. Detergents lather in hard water, which soap does not, and do not form scum.
  • Stain Removers: Substances that dissolve stains.
    • Lemon juice: For fabric stains.
    • Sodium hydroxide: Dissolves grease and oil.
    • Boiling water: Softens fruit juice stains.

Introduction to Chemistry

• Chemistry is the study of substances, their composition and properties, interactions, and chemical changes.

• The two main branches of chemistry are Inorganic Chemistry and Organic Chemistry.

• Inorganic Chemistry involves the study of elements and compounds, including metals and nonmetals.

• Organic Chemistry focuses on carbon compounds, primarily composed of carbon and hydrogen.

Basic Laboratory Apparatus

• Test Tube: Used for heating chemicals and studying reactions in solutions.

• Beaker: A glass container with a lip for holding, pouring, and mixing solutions.

• Flasks: Varied shapes and purposes, such as:

  • Round bottom flask: For gas preparation requiring heating.
  • Flat bottom flask: For gas preparation without heating.
  • Conical flask: For storing liquids and mixing solutions.
  • Retort: For distillation experiments.

Holders for Basic Glass Apparatus

• Test Tube Holder: A metallic clamp with a wooden handle for holding test tubes during heating.

• Test Tube Stand: A wooden or plastic stand with holes and pegs for keeping test tubes after experiments or washing.

• Retort Stand: An iron rod with a rectangular base, used to hold flasks and other apparatus during experiments.

• Tripod Stand: An iron triangle mounted on three legs used for supporting glass apparatus and wire gauze.

• Wire Gauze: A rectangular wire mesh with asbestos in the center, placed between the tripod stand and the glass apparatus for even heat distribution.

Gas Apparatus

• Bunsen Burner: Has a burner tube, air regulator, and base for burning gas.

• Thistle Funnel: A long glass tube with a broad inlet for adding reactants into round bottom flasks.

• Delivery Tube: A thin hollow glass tube used for transferring gases between apparatus and connecting different pieces of glass apparatus.

• Beehive Shelf: A clay vessel with two outlets for collecting gases by downward displacement of water.

• Gas Jar: A long glass jar closed at one end, open at the other, for collecting gases using different methods:

  • Downward displacement of water: Used for gases insoluble or slightly soluble in water (e.g., nitrogen, oxygen).
  • Downward displacement of air: Used for gases soluble in water and lighter than air (e.g., ammonia).
  • Upward displacement of air: Used for gases soluble in water and heavier than air (e.g., hydrogen chloride).

• Funnel: Used for pouring reactants into thistle funnels, transferring liquids, and for filtration.

Measuring Apparatus

• Pipette: Used to measure liquid by sucking it up to a marked level and then pouring it out.

• Burette: Used to measure liquid by pouring it from the top to a marked level and then releasing it dropwise.

• Measuring Cylinder: Used to measure liquid by filling it to a marked level and then pouring it out.

Importance of Chemistry

• Agriculture:

  • Fertilizers: Improve soil fertility and provide nutrients (e.g., ammonium nitrate, urea).
  • Pesticides: Chemicals used to kill unwanted plants and insects (e.g., herbicides, insecticides).

• Products:

  • Food: Refined oils, butter, cheese.
  • Construction: Mortar, cement, glass.
  • Clothing: Natural fabrics like silk; cooking gas (LPG); food preservatives.
  • Household: Paints, dyes, perfumes, paper, ink, metals, and alloys.
  • Industrial: Petroleum (petrol, kerosene, diesel oil).

Historical Aspects of Chemistry

• Alchemists: Preceded modern chemists, often utilizing occult and religious practices. They aimed to transform substances through seemingly magical processes.

  • Nicolas Flamel: An alchemist in the 14th century, claimed to transform metals into gold.

• Philosopher's Stone: A legendary substance believed to have the power to turn base metals into gold and silver, and grant immortality.

Key Chemists

• Dimitri Mendeleev (1834-1907): A Russian scientist who formulated the Periodic Table of elements, predicting the properties of unknown elements.

• Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794): A French scientist who recognized and named oxygen (1778) and hydrogen (1783). His experiments on combustion led to the discovery of oxygen.

• John Dalton (1766-1844): An English scientist who developed Dalton's atomic theory, proposing that matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms.

Other Important Chemists

• Van Helmont (1630): Discovered carbon dioxide by heating charcoal in air.

• Glauber (1648): First prepared hydrogen chloride gas and nitric acid.

• Joseph Priestly (1770): First prepared sulphur dioxide gas.

Food Preservatives

• Preservatives are substances added to food to prevent decomposition by bacteria or microbes, reduce the risk of foodborne infections, and preserve nutritional quality.

• Common preservatives include:

  • Benzoic acid: Used in jams, pickles, carbonated drinks.
  • Nitrates: Used in meat products.
  • Sulfur compounds: Used in beverages and wines.

Food Processing

• Food processing involves transforming or changing raw ingredients into usable forms.

• Food processing includes processes like:

  • Mincing
  • Cooking
  • Pickling
  • Preservative addition
  • Canning
  • Packaging

Cosmetics and Chemistry

• Cosmetics are designed to enhance or alter the appearance or fragrance of the body.

• They are made from mixtures of chemical compounds, both natural and synthetic.

• Talcum powder is made from talc, a mineral composed of magnesium, silicon, and oxygen.

• Common ingredients in cosmetics include:

  • Water
  • Titanium oxide
  • Zinc and iron oxides
  • Emulsifiers
  • Preservatives

Clothing and Chemistry

• Clothing is made from fabrics, either natural or synthetic.

• Synthetic fibers like terylene, nylon, and rayon are used in clothing.

• Terylene: A synthetic polyester fiber known for its strength, elasticity, crease resistance, and washability.

• Rayon: A regenerated cellulose fiber, often blended with wool for carpets or cotton for bed sheets.

• Nylon: An artificial synthetic fiber used in fabrics, ropes, brushes, and hooks.

Medicines and Chemistry

• Medicines are substances that affect the functioning of a living body to treat or prevent diseases.

• Chemistry plays a crucial role in creating drugs to combat illness.

• Aspirin: A widely used medication for pain, fever, and inflammation.

• Paracetamol: Also known as acetaminophen, used to treat mild to moderate pain and fever.

• Other medications include: Antacids, Iron supplements, Vitamin B12.

Industries and Chemistry

• Cleansing Agents:

  • Soap: Made from vegetable oils or animal fats, used with water for cleaning.
  • Detergents: Synthetic, water-soluble cleaning agents made from petroleum products and sodium or potassium hydroxide.

• Stain Removals: The process of removing marks or stains from surfaces.

• Examples of Stain Removers: Lemon juice (removes fabric stains), Sodium hydroxide (dissolves grease and oil), Boiling water (softens fruit juice stains).

Introduction To Chemistry

• Chemistry is the study of substances, their composition and properties, their interactions, and the chemical changes they undergo.

• The two main branches of Chemistry are Inorganic Chemistry and Organic Chemistry.

Basic Chemistry Laboratory Apparatus

• Test tube: Used for heating chemicals and studying reactions in solutions. A boiling tube is a heat-resistant test tube used for specialized purposes.

• Beaker: A glass container with a lip used for holding, pouring, and mixing solutions.

• Flasks: Glass apparatuses with various shapes for different purposes.

  • Round bottom flask: Used for gas preparation requiring heating.
  • Flat bottom flask: Used in gas preparation where heating is not required.
  • Conical flask: For storage of liquids and mixing solutions.
  • Retort: For distillation experiments, including distillation of acids.

Holders For Basic Glass Apparatus

• Test tube holder: Metallic clamp fixed on a wooden handle. Used to hold a test tube when heating.

• Test tube stand: Wooden or plastic stand with holes and upright pegs. Used for keeping test tubes straight after cleaning.

• Retort stand: An iron rod with a rectangular heavy iron base. Used to hold flasks, retorts, and other apparatus.

• Tripod stand: Made up of an iron triangle mounted on a three iron legs. Supports glass apparatus like a flask or retort.

• Wire gauze: A rectangular wire mesh with asbestos in the center, placed between the tripod and the glass apparatus. Prevents cracking of the glass apparatus during heating.

Gas Apparatus

• Bunsen burner: Consists of a burner tube, an air regulator, and a base. Used for burning gas.

• Thistle funnel: A long glass tube with a broad inlet at the top. Allows entry of reactants into the round bottom flask.

• Delivery tube: A thin hollow glass tube of various shapes. Transfers gases between apparatuses.

• Beehive shelf: Clay vessel with outlets on its sides and top. Used to collect gases by downward displacement of water.

• Gas jar: A long glass jar closed at one end and open at the other. Used to collect gases by different methods:

  • Downward displacement of water: For collecting gases insoluble in water.
  • Downward displacement of air: For collecting gases soluble in water but lighter than air.
  • Upward displacement of air: For collecting gases soluble in water and heavier than air.

• Funnel: Made of glass in various sizes. Pouring reactants into the thistle funnel, from vessel to vessel, or carrying out filtration.

Measuring Apparatus

• Pipette: Measures liquid by sucking it up to the marked level and then pouring it out.

• Burette: Measures liquid by pouring it from the top to the marked level and then releasing it dropwise.

• Measuring cylinder: Measures liquid by filling it to the marked level and pouring it out.

Importance Of Chemistry

• Agriculture: Fertilizers (e.g., ammonium nitrate, urea, phosphatic fertilizer) and pesticides (e.g., herbicides, insecticides) are essential for agriculture.

• Products: Chemistry is involved in production of food, clothing, construction materials, medicine, and more.

Alchemists & Philosopher's Stone

• Alchemists: Predecessors to modern chemists. They explored transforming substances through supposedly magical processes, often involving occult practices and religion.

• Philosopher's Stone: A legendary substance believed to be able to transform inexpensive metals into gold and silver, and often associated with the elixir of life.

Notable Chemists

• Dimitri Mendeleev (1834-1907): Russian chemist who formulated the Periodic Table of elements.

• Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794): French chemist who recognized and named oxygen in 1778 and named hydrogen in 1783.

• John Dalton (1766-1844): English chemist who developed Dalton's Atomic Theory, which proposed that matter consists of indivisible particles called atoms that cannot be created or destroyed.

Food Preservation

• Food preservatives: Substances added to food and beverages to prevent bacterial decomposition and reduce food-borne illness.

• Common food preservatives: Benzoic acid, nitrates, sulphur compounds.

Food Processing

• Food processing: Transformation of raw ingredients into marketable food products using various physical and chemical processes including:
  • mincing
  • cooking
  • pickling
  • preservative addition
  • canning
  • packaging

Cosmetics and Chemistry

• Cosmetics: Enhance appearance and fragrance. Made up of natural or synthetic chemicals.

• Talc: A mineral powder used in talcum powder. Made up of magnesium, silicon, and oxygen.

• Common cosmetic ingredients:

  • Water
  • Titanium oxide
  • Zinc and iron oxides
  • Emulsifiers
  • Preservatives

Clothing and Chemistry

• Clothing: Made from fabrics derived from natural fibers (e.g., cotton, wool), synthetic fibers (e.g., terylene, nylon, rayon), or a combination of both.

• Terylene: A synthetic polyester fiber with properties like strength, elasticity, resistance to friction, and easy washability.

Medicines and Chemistry

• Medicines: Natural or synthetic substances that affect the functioning of a living body, treating or preventing diseases.

• Examples: Aspirin, paracetamol, antacids, iron supplements, vitamin B12.

Industries and Chemistry

• Cleansing agents:

  • Soaps: Made from vegetable oils or animal fats and used with water for cleaning.
  • Detergents: Made from petroleum products and have an advantage over soaps in hard water.

• Stain removal: The process of removing marks or stains from surfaces.

• Stain removers: Lemon juice (removes stains from fabrics), sodium hydroxide (dissolves oil and grease), boiling water (softens fruit juice stains).

Introduction to Chemistry

• Chemistry deals with the study of substances, their composition & properties, their interaction with other substances & the chemical changes they undergo.
• The two main branches of Chemistry are Inorganic Chemistry (study of innumerable elements & compounds including metals & non-metals) and Organic Chemistry (study of specific carbon compounds built up mainly of carbon & hydrogen).

Basic Glass Apparatus

• Test tube: used for heating chemicals & studying reactions in solution. A boiling tube is resistant to chemicals & used for special purposes.
• Beaker: used for holding, pouring & mixing solutions.
• Flasks: glass apparatuses of various shapes for varied purposes.
  • Round bottom flask: For gas preparation where heating is required.
  • Flat bottom flask: For gas preparation where heating is not required.
  • Conical flask: For storage of various liquids and for mixing of different solutions.
  • Retort: For carrying out distillation experiments which include distillation of acids.

Holders for Basic Glass Apparatus

• Test tube holder: metallic clamp fixed on a wooden handle, used for holding a test tube when the substance is heated.
• Test tube stand: wooden or plastic stand with holes & upright pegs for keeping test tubes straight through the holes - of different sizes. Washed test tubes can be inverted on the pegs in the test tube stand.
• Retort stand: contains an iron rod with rectangular heavy iron base. A clamp is mounted on the rod which can be raised or rotated. It holds the apparatus, like flasks, used during chemical reactions. The movable clamp can be adjusted upwards or downwards.
• Tripod stand: made up of an iron triangle mounted on three iron legs, supports the glass apparatus, i.e. a flask or retort, placed on it. It also supports the wire gauze which is placed on it.
• Wire gauze: rectangular wire mesh with an asbestos at its centre, placed between the tripod stand & the glass apparatus. It prevents the glass apparatus from cracking on heating from below. It initiates even distribution of heat to the bottom of the apparatus.

Gas Apparatus

• Bunsen burner: consists of a burner tube, an air regulator & a base.
  • Burner tube: long tube at the end of which the gas burns.
  • Air regulator: metal cylinder with holes for regulating the flame.
  • Base: connected to a gas tap for the inlet of the gas.
• Thistle funnel: long glass tube with a broad inlet at the top, allows entry of reactants into the round bottom flask. Its lower end dips below the solution in the flask, otherwise, the gases formed may escape out through the thistle funnel and not pass through the delivery tube and get collected.
• Delivery tube: thin hollow glass tube of various shapes, used for transfer of gases from one apparatus to another and for connecting one piece of glass apparatus to another.
• Beehive shelf: clay vessel provided with two outlets on the side and at the top. It is used for collecting gases by the downward displacement of water.
• Gas jar: long glass jar which is closed at one end & open at the other, used for collecting gases by different methods like Downward displacement of water, Downward displacement of air, and Upward displacement of air.

Measuring Apparatuses

• Pipette: measures liquid by sucking the liquid upto the marked level & closing the open end. The measured liquid is then poured out by removing the thumb.
• Burette: measures liquid by pouring the liquid from the top of the burette upto the marked level. The measured liquid is then removed dropwise by opening the tap below.
• Measuring cylinder: measures liquid by filling the liquid to the marked level and then pouring it out.

Importance of Chemistry

• Agriculture:
  • Fertilizers: Improve fertility & supply plant nutrients essential for growth. Example: Ammonium nitrate, Urea, Phosphatic fertilizer (about 90% in solid form).
  • Pesticides: Chemicals added to the soil to kill unwanted plants & harmful insects. Examples: Herbicides kill or inhibit growth of unwanted plants, Insecticides destroy insects.
• Products:
  • Food: Refined oils, butter & cheese.
  • Construction: Mortar, cement & glass.
  • Clothing: Natural fabrics such as silk.
  • Household: Paints, dyes, perfumes, paper & ink.
  • Industrial: Petroleum (petrol, kerosene & diesel oil).
  • Metals & alloys: Find application in innumerable machines & metallic structures like automobiles.

Origins of Chemistry

• Alchemists: Predecessors to the Modern Chemist. They included occult & religion in their work. They transformed or created substances through a seemingly magical process (Nicolas Flamel, an alchemist around the 14th century, claimed to transform metals into gold).
• Philosopher's Stone: A legendary substance capable of turning inexpensive metals like lead or mercury into gold & silver. It was believed to be the elixir of life and was the most sought-after goal in Western Alchemy.

Key Chemists and Their Discoveries

• Dimitri Mendeleev (1834-1907): Russian chemist, formulated the Periodic Table of elements. He systematically arranged the elements and predicted the properties of still unknown elements.
• Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794): French scientist, recognised & named Oxygen in 1778 and Hydrogen in 1783. He also wrote the first extensive list of elements. He conducted the famous experiment with heating pure mercury, leading to the discovery of Oxygen.
• John Dalton (1766-1844): English scientist, compiled Dalton's atomic theory in 1803. The theory states that matter consists of particles called atoms that are indivisible and cannot be created or destroyed.

Other Important Chemists

• Van Helmont (1630): Discovered carbon dioxide by heating charcoal in air.
• Glauber (1648): First prepared hydrogen chloride gas from sodium chloride & concentrated sulphuric acid. He later prepared nitric acid.
• Joseph Priestley (1770): First prepared sulphur dioxide gas.

Food Chemistry

• Food Preservatives: Substances or chemicals added to food or beverages to prevent decomposition by bacteria or microbes, reduce risk of foodborne infections, and preserve nutritional quality. Commonly used preservatives include:
  • Benzoic acid: Jams, pickles, carbonated drinks.
  • Nitrates: Meat products.
  • Sulphur compounds: Beverages, wines etc.
• Food Processing: Transformation or change in the physical or chemical processes of raw ingredients in food into easy-to-use forms. It involves processes like mincing, cooking, pickling, preservative addition, canning, and packaging.

Cosmetics and Chemistry

• Cosmetics: Enhance or alter the appearance or fragrance of an individual. They are mixtures of chemical compounds from natural sources or synthetic sources, including modified natural oils & fats, processed minerals such as zinc oxide, iron oxide & talc.
• Talc: A mineral made up of elements magnesium, silicon & oxygen. It absorbs moisture, cuts down on friction, keeps skin dry & prevents rashes.
• Ingredients in Cosmetics:
  • Water: Forms the basis of almost all cosmetic products and acts as a solvent for water-soluble ingredients.
  • Oxide of titanium: A natural pigment powder that provides mild sun protection.
  • Oxides of zinc & iron: Classified as pigments (colorants), providing variation in color to cosmetics. They are used in creams & lotions to give an even texture.
  • Emulsifiers: Used to create mixtures of oil and water.
  • Preservatives: Extend the shelf life of a cosmetic and prevent the growth of microorganisms.

Clothing and Chemistry

• Clothing: Material used for covering the body by a fabric. Certain fabrics are made by conversion of fibres such as cotton, to synthetic fabrics.
• Terylene: Synthetic polyester fibre or fabric formed generally, by addition of polyester to natural fibre cotton.
  • Properties: Strong fabric, elastic in nature, resistant to friction, suffers little loss in strength, crease resistant, easily washable & dries quickly.
  • Uses: Fashion garment fabrics, nonwoven carpets, nets, ropes, hoses etc.
• Other synthetic fabrics:
  • Rayon: A regenerated cellulose fibre used in carpets (when blended with wool), and bed sheets (when blended with cotton).
  • Nylon: An artificial synthetic fibre used in fabrics, ropes, brushes, hooks etc.

Medicines and Chemistry

• Medicines: Natural or synthetic substances that, when taken in a living body, affect its functioning and treat or prevent a disease.
  • Chemistry allows researchers to create drugs that combat illness.
  • Chemistry is required to know which molecule is preferred for which disease after a promising molecule is identified.
  • Examples:
    • Aspirin: Treats pain, fever, and inflammation. May decrease risk of death after a heart attack. Long term use may reduce blood clots in people at a high risk.
    • Paracetamol: Treats mild to moderate pain and fever.
    • Other medicines: Antacids for acidity and upset stomach, iron supplements & vitamin B12 for anemia (deficiency of red cells in the blood).

Industries and Chemistry

• Cleansing Agents
  • Soap: Substances used with water for cleaning & washing. Made from vegetable oils or animal fats.
  • Detergents: Synthetic water-soluble cleaning agents prepared from petroleum products and sodium or potassium hydroxide. Detergents have an advantage over ordinary soap in hard water, as they do not form scum, lather easily even in hard water, and do not waste soap.
• Stain Removals:
  • Removal of marks or stains left by one substance on a specific surface.
  • Most stains are removed by dissolving with a solvent.
  • Examples:
    • Lemon juice: Removes stains from fabrics.
    • Sodium hydroxide: Dissolves grease & oil, preferred as a drain cleaner.
    • Boiling water: Softens fruit juice stains.

Introduction to Chemistry

• Chemistry is the study of substances, their composition and properties, their interactions, and the chemical changes they undergo.
• The two main branches of chemistry are inorganic chemistry (dealing with elements and compounds, including metals and non-metals) and organic chemistry (focusing on carbon compounds).

Laboratory Apparatus

• Basic Glassware:

  • Test Tubes: Used for heating chemicals and studying reactions in solutions.
  • Beakers: Used for holding, pouring, and mixing solutions.
  • Flasks:
    • Round bottom flasks are used for gas preparation with heating due to uniform heat distribution.
    • Flat bottom flasks are used for gas preparation without heating.
    • Conical flasks are used for storing liquids and mixing solutions.
    • Retorts are used for distillation experiments.

• Holders for Basic Glassware:

  • Test Tube Holder: Metallic clamp used to hold test tubes during heating.
  • Test Tube Stand: Wooden or plastic stand with holes and pegs to hold and dry test tubes.
  • Retort Stand: Iron rod with a heavy base and a movable clamp to hold flasks and other apparatus during experiments.
  • Tripod Stand: Iron triangle mounted on three legs to support glass apparatus and wire gauze.
  • Wire Gauze: Rectangular wire mesh with asbestos, placed between the tripod stand and glassware to prevent cracking during heating and ensure even heat distribution.

• Gas Apparatus:

  • Bunsen Burner: Used to heat substances with controlled flame. It consists of a burner tube, an air regulator, and a base connected to a gas tap.
  • Thistle Funnel: Allows entry of reactants into a round bottom flask.
  • Delivery Tube: Transfer gases from one apparatus to another.
  • Beehive Shelf: Used for collecting gases by downward displacement of water.
  • Gas Jar: Used to collect gases by various methods (displacement of water or air).

Importance of Chemistry

• Agriculture:

  • Fertilizers: Increase soil fertility and supply essential plant nutrients, like ammonium nitrate and urea.
  • Phosphatic fertilizers: About 90% of fertilizers are in solid form.
  • Pesticides: Chemicals added to soil to kill unwanted plants and insects.
    • Herbicides: Kill unwanted plants.
    • Insecticides: Destroy insects harmful to plants.

• Products:

  • Food: Refined oils, butter, and cheese.
  • Construction: Mortar, cement, and glass.
  • Clothing: Silk and other natural fabrics.
  • Household: Paints, dyes, perfumes, paper, and ink.
  • Metals and Alloys: Used in automobiles, machines, and structures.
  • Industrial: Petroleum products like petrol, kerosene, and diesel oil.

History of Chemistry:

• Alchemists: Predecessors to modern chemists who attempted to transform substances through a seemingly magical process.
  • Nicolas Flamel: A 14th-century alchemist who claimed to transform metals into gold.
  • Philosopher's Stone: A legendary substance capable of turning base metals into gold and silver, and believed to be the elixir of life.

Notable Chemists:

• Dimitri Mendeleev (1834-1907): Russian scientist who formulated the Periodic Table of elements and predicted the properties of unknown elements.
• Antoine Lavoisier (1743-1794): French scientist who recognised and named oxygen and hydrogen. He also authored the first comprehensive element list and conducted experiments on combustion to shed light on oxygen's role.
• John Dalton (1766-1844): English scientist who proposed Dalton's atomic theory, which states that matter is composed of indivisible particles called atoms.
• Other Chemists:
  • Van Helmont: Discovered carbon dioxide by heating charcoal in air.
  • Glauber: First prepared hydrogen chloride gas and later nitric acid.
  • Joseph Priestley: First prepared sulphur dioxide gas.

Food Preservation and Processing

• Food Preservatives: Added to foods and beverages:

  • To prevent decomposition by bacteria or microbes.
  • To reduce the risk of foodborne infections.
  • To preserve nutritional quality.
  • Common Preservatives: Benzoic acid (jams, pickles, carbonated drinks), nitrates (meat products), and sulfur compounds (beverages, wines).

• Food Processing: Transforming raw ingredients into usable forms through physical or chemical changes.

  • Processes include: mincing, cooking, pickling, preservative addition, canning, and packaging.

Cosmetics and Chemistry

• Cosmetics: Enhance or alter appearance or fragrance. Mixtures of chemical compounds from both natural and synthetic sources.
  • Talcum Powder: Made from talc, a mineral containing magnesium, silicon, and oxygen. It absorbs moisture, reduces friction, and prevents rashes.
  • Ingredients:
    • Water: Solvent for water-soluble ingredients.
    • Titanium Oxide: Natural pigment powder that provides mild sun protection.
    • Oxides of Zinc and Iron: Pigments that add color and provide even texture.
    • Emulsifiers: Help oil and water to mix.
    • Preservatives: Extend shelf life and prevent microbial growth.

Clothing and Chemistry

• Clothing: Fabric used to cover the body.
  • Natural Fibers: Cotton and wool, directly converted into clothing material.
  • Synthetic Fibers: Terylene, nylon, and rayon, used in various applications.
  • Terylene: Synthetic polyester fiber, strong, elastic, resistant to friction, crease-resistant, and easily washable. Used in clothing fabrics, carpets, nets, ropes, and hoses.
  • Other Synthetic Fabrics: Rayon, nylon, and acrylic.

Medicines & Chemistry

• Medicines: Natural or synthetic substances that affect body functioning to treat or prevent disease.
  • Aspirin: Treats pain, fever, and inflammation. Can reduce blood clotting and risk of death after a heart attack.
  • Paracetamol: Treats mild to moderate pain and fever.
  • Other Medicines: Antacids, iron supplements, and vitamin B12.

Industries and Chemistry

• Cleansing Agents:

  • Soaps: Made from vegetable oils or animal fats.
  • Detergents: Synthetic water-soluble cleaning agents made from petroleum products.
    • Hard Water: Contains minerals that prevent soap from lathering effectively.
    • Soft Water: Allows soap to lather easily.
    • Detergents offer an advantage over soap because they lather even in hard water.

• Stain Removals: The process of removing marks or stains from surfaces.

  • Stain Removers:
    • Lemon juice: Removes stains from fabrics.
    • Sodium hydroxide: Dissolves grease and oil, often used as a drain cleaner.
    • Boiling water: Softens fruit juice stains.

Introduction to Chemistry

• Chemistry studies the properties, composition, and interactions of substances, including chemical changes.
• Its two main branches are inorganic chemistry (elements and compounds) and organic chemistry (carbon compounds, especially those containing hydrogen).

Basic Chemistry Apparatus

• Test Tube: For heating chemicals and studying reactions in solutions. A boiling tube, made of resistant pyrex glass, is used for special purposes.
• Beaker: Holding, pouring, and mixing solutions.
• Flasks:
  • Round Bottom: Gas preparation with heating.
  • Flat Bottom: Gas preparation without heating.
  • Conical: Storage and mixing.
  • Retort: Distillation experiments, such as distilling acids.

Holders for Chemistry Apparatus

• Test Tube Holder: Holding test tubes while heating.
• Test Tube Stand: Holds test tubes after cleaning or after an experiment.
• Retort Stand: Holding flasks, retorts, and other apparatus during experiments.
• Tripod Stand & Wire Gauze: Supports glass apparatus and distributes heat evenly.

Gas Apparatus

• Bunsen Burner: For heating by burning gas.
• Thistle Funnel: Allows entry of reactants into a round bottom flask.
• Delivery Tube: Transferring gases between different apparatus.
• Beehive Shelf: Used with a trough of water for collecting gases by displacement of water.
• Gas Jar: For collecting gases, either by displacement of water (insoluble gases) or by displacing air (gases soluble in water).

Measuring Apparatus

• Pipette: Measures liquid by sucking it up to a marked level.
• Burette: Measures liquid by pouring it from the top to a certain mark.
• Measuring Cylinder: Measures liquid by filling it to a marked level.

Importance of Chemistry

• Agriculture: Fertilizers (like ammonium nitrate and urea) improve soil fertility, and pesticides (herbicides and insecticides) control weeds and pests.
• Products: Chemistry is essential for many products, including refined oils, butter and cheese (food), mortar, cement, and glass (construction), natural and synthetic fabrics (clothing), cooking gas (LPG), and food preservatives.

Alchemists and the Philosophers' Stone

• Alchemists were early practitioners of chemistry, often involving mystical and religious aspects.
• They were primarily known for trying to transform metals like lead and mercury into gold and silver.
• The Philosopher's Stone was a legendary substance believed to make this transmutation possible, as well as provide immortality.
• Alchemy, although not a scientific field today, helped develop processes for extracting metals and other valuable elements, laying the foundation for modern chemistry.

Notable Chemists

• Dimitri Mendeleev: Developed the Periodic Table of Elements, predicting properties of undiscovered elements.
• Antoine Lavoisier: Recognized and named oxygen and hydrogen, and conducted experiments on combustion leading to the discovery of oxygen.
• John Dalton: Proposed Dalton's atomic theory, stating that matter is composed of indivisible atoms that cannot be created or destroyed.

Food Preservation

• Food Preservatives: Chemical substances added to food to prevent decomposition by bacteria or microbes, reduce foodborne illnesses, and preserve nutritional quality.
• Examples: Benzoic acid (jams, pickles, carbonated drinks), nitrates (meat products), and sulfur compounds (beverages, wines).

Food Processing

• Food Processing: Transforming raw ingredients into usable forms. This involves processes such as mincing, cooking, pickling, preserving, canning, and packaging.

Cosmetics and Chemistry

• Cosmetics: Enhance or alter appearance or fragrance. They are mixtures of chemical compounds from natural and synthetic sources.
• Talc: A common ingredient in cosmetics, it absorbs moisture, reduces friction, and prevents rashes.
• Key Cosmetic Ingredients:
  • Water: Solvent for water-soluble ingredients.
  • Titanium Dioxide: Pigment for mild sun protection.
  • Zinc and Iron Oxides: Pigments for color and texture.
  • Emulsifiers: Help oil and water combine.
  • Preservatives: Extend shelf life and prevent microbial growth.

Clothing and Chemistry

• Clothing: Fabrics made from natural fibres like cotton and wool, as well as synthetic fibres like Terylene, nylon, and rayon.
• Terylene: A synthetic polyester fabric known for its strength, elasticity, crease resistance, and ease of washing.
• Rayon: A regenerated cellulose fibre often blended with wool or cotton.
• Nylon: An artificial synthetic fibre used in fabrics, ropes, brushes, and more.

Medicines and Chemistry

• Medicines: Natural or synthetic substances that influence the functions of a living organism to treat or prevent disease.
• Examples:
  • Aspirin: Pain reliever, fever reducer, and inflammation reducer.
  • Paracetamol: Mild to moderate pain reliever and fever reducer.
  • Antacids: Relieve acidity and upset stomach.
  • Iron Supplements and Vitamin B12: Treat anemia.

Industries and Chemistry

• Cleansing Agents:
  • Soap: Prepared from vegetable oils or animal fats for cleaning and washing.
  • Detergents: Synthetic water-soluble cleaning agents prepared from petroleum products. Detergents have an advantage over soaps in hard water, as they don't form scum.
• Stain Removals: Processes used to remove marks or stains on surfaces such as fabrics. Most stains are removed by dissolving with a solvent.
  • Examples: Lemon juice (removes stains on fabrics), sodium hydroxide (dissolves grease and oil), boiling water (softens fruit juice stains).

Test your knowledge on the fundamentals of chemistry, including its branches, basic glassware, and laboratory apparatus. Learn about the differences between organic and inorganic chemistry, as well as the functions of various types of flasks and beakers in the lab.