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Questions and Answers
What defines cancer as a collection of diseases?
What defines cancer as a collection of diseases?
Which type of cancer arises from epithelial tissues?
Which type of cancer arises from epithelial tissues?
What is a hallmark of cancer?
What is a hallmark of cancer?
How are cancers classified?
How are cancers classified?
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Which of the following cancers primarily affects bone marrow?
Which of the following cancers primarily affects bone marrow?
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Which characteristic does not typically apply to cancers?
Which characteristic does not typically apply to cancers?
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What is the role of cell cycle checkpoints in cancer?
What is the role of cell cycle checkpoints in cancer?
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Leukemia primarily affects which type of cells?
Leukemia primarily affects which type of cells?
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What is the primary function of tumor suppressor genes?
What is the primary function of tumor suppressor genes?
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Which of the following is a well-known tumor suppressor gene commonly mutated in cancer?
Which of the following is a well-known tumor suppressor gene commonly mutated in cancer?
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How do tumor cells achieve immortality compared to normal cells?
How do tumor cells achieve immortality compared to normal cells?
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Which hallmark of cancer is characterized by cells avoiding programmed cell death?
Which hallmark of cancer is characterized by cells avoiding programmed cell death?
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Which of the following best describes a common issue in developing drugs targeting the gene p53?
Which of the following best describes a common issue in developing drugs targeting the gene p53?
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What limits the number of times most normal cells can divide?
What limits the number of times most normal cells can divide?
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Which mechanism do chemotherapy and radiotherapy use to kill cancer cells?
Which mechanism do chemotherapy and radiotherapy use to kill cancer cells?
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How many hits are typically required to inactivate a tumor suppressor gene?
How many hits are typically required to inactivate a tumor suppressor gene?
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What is the role of E2F transcription factors and pRB proteins in the regulation of cyclin expression?
What is the role of E2F transcription factors and pRB proteins in the regulation of cyclin expression?
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Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors like p27 function to:
Cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors like p27 function to:
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What is one characteristic of oncogenes?
What is one characteristic of oncogenes?
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What does the mutation of Ras from a proto-oncogene to an oncogene primarily result in?
What does the mutation of Ras from a proto-oncogene to an oncogene primarily result in?
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Which of the following describes gains in growth factor independence in cancer cells?
Which of the following describes gains in growth factor independence in cancer cells?
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What event typically occurs when growth factor receptors undergo mutations in cancer cells?
What event typically occurs when growth factor receptors undergo mutations in cancer cells?
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Which of the following factors is NOT involved in the regulation of cyclin:CDK complex activity?
Which of the following factors is NOT involved in the regulation of cyclin:CDK complex activity?
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What is the relationship between proto-oncogenes and oncogenes?
What is the relationship between proto-oncogenes and oncogenes?
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What characterizes a benign tumor?
What characterizes a benign tumor?
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What is the process of carcinogenesis?
What is the process of carcinogenesis?
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Which phase of the cell cycle is primarily involved in DNA synthesis?
Which phase of the cell cycle is primarily involved in DNA synthesis?
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What does metastasis refer to in cancer biology?
What does metastasis refer to in cancer biology?
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How is tumorigenesis best described?
How is tumorigenesis best described?
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What happens during the anaphase of mitosis?
What happens during the anaphase of mitosis?
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Which term describes a mass of abnormal cells that can invade surrounding tissues?
Which term describes a mass of abnormal cells that can invade surrounding tissues?
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What is the function of cyclin:CDK complexes in the cell cycle?
What is the function of cyclin:CDK complexes in the cell cycle?
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Which condition is referred to as 'carcinoma in situ'?
Which condition is referred to as 'carcinoma in situ'?
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Which statement is true regarding normal cell proliferation?
Which statement is true regarding normal cell proliferation?
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What is the primary cause of cancer according to the Knudson hypothesis?
What is the primary cause of cancer according to the Knudson hypothesis?
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How many times is DNA typically damaged in a cell per day?
How many times is DNA typically damaged in a cell per day?
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Which of the following types of mutations is NOT mentioned as a type of mutation in the content?
Which of the following types of mutations is NOT mentioned as a type of mutation in the content?
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What is the first stage of carcinogenesis where the initial mutations occur?
What is the first stage of carcinogenesis where the initial mutations occur?
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What factor is most commonly associated with lung cancer mutations?
What factor is most commonly associated with lung cancer mutations?
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Which of the following causes of mutations involves errors during cellular replication?
Which of the following causes of mutations involves errors during cellular replication?
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Which system is used to classify the extent of tumor growth and lymph node involvement?
Which system is used to classify the extent of tumor growth and lymph node involvement?
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What are some reasons for the improvement in cancer survival rates?
What are some reasons for the improvement in cancer survival rates?
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What is the result of accumulated mutations in terms of genome stability?
What is the result of accumulated mutations in terms of genome stability?
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Which of the following factors is NOT considered a risk factor for cancer?
Which of the following factors is NOT considered a risk factor for cancer?
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What is NOT a mechanism that leads to mutations in DNA?
What is NOT a mechanism that leads to mutations in DNA?
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What is a common cancer screening program for adults aged 60-75 in the UK?
What is a common cancer screening program for adults aged 60-75 in the UK?
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What property must a cell acquire to progress to cancer according to the Knudson hypothesis?
What property must a cell acquire to progress to cancer according to the Knudson hypothesis?
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Which stage follows initiation and involves further mutations that promote proliferation?
Which stage follows initiation and involves further mutations that promote proliferation?
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Which of the following is a primary characteristic of cancer?
Which of the following is a primary characteristic of cancer?
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What percentage of cancers globally is caused by infections?
What percentage of cancers globally is caused by infections?
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Study Notes
Introduction to Cancer
- Cancer is a collection of diseases, not just one disease.
- It's characterized by uncontrolled cell growth and invasion.
- Affects virtually any organ or cell type.
- Has various causes.
- Outcomes range from treatable to untreatable.
- Different therapeutic approaches are employed.
Types of Cancer
- Cancer refers to hundreds of different diseases.
- There are over 200 types of cancer.
- Each case is unique because molecular and cellular events arise randomly.
- Classification usually based on the body part and cell type where the cancer originates.
Types of Cancer (Examples)
- Carcinoma: Most common; arises from epithelial tissue (e.g., breast, lung, liver).
- Sarcoma: Connective tissues (e.g., bones, muscles, blood vessels).
- Myeloma: Bone marrow (plasma cells).
- Leukemia: Bone marrow (white blood cells, erythrocytes).
- Lymphoma: Lymph nodes/glands (spleen, tonsils, thymus).
- -oma (e.g., Lipoma, adenoma): Benign tumours (not spreading).
Cancer Prefixes
- adeno-: gland
- chondro-: cartilage
- erythro-: red blood cell
- hemangio-: blood vessels
- hepato-: liver
- lipo-: fat
- lympho-: lymphocyte
- melano-: pigment cell
- myelo-: bone marrow
- myo-: muscle
- osteo-: bone
Cancer Type and Prognosis
- Survival rates vary greatly between cancer types.
- Specific types, such as non-melanoma skin and prostate cancer, generally have higher five-year survival rates.
- Cancers of the pancreas, esophagus, and lung tend to have lower survival rates.
Important Terminology
- Neoplasm: New disorganised growth or tumour with a net increase in dividing cells.
- Tumour: A mass of abnormal cells.
- Benign tumours: Enlarges but doesn't invade surrounding tissues and doesn't spread.
- Malignant tumours: Malignant tumours invade surrounding tissue and spread.
- Metastasis: Tumour spreading beyond the original site into other areas in the body.
- Carcinogenesis: The process of forming a cancer via carcinogens.
Properties of Cancer
- Cancer cells are formed when normal cells undergo specific changes allowing them to proliferate without normal limits and spread to surrounding tissues.
- Usually multiple changes are needed to turn a normal cell into a cancer cell.
- Inherited susceptibility and/or lifestyle influences cancer progression.
Tumorigenesis (Multi-step Process)
- Cancer development is a multi-step process.
- The process involves several stages through which benign tissues become cancerous.
- This progression involves pre-cancerous cellular changes, which are reversible.
- Carcinoma in situ (CIS), cervical intraepithelial neoplasia (CIN), ductal carcinoma in situ (DCIS), and prostatic intraepithelial neoplasia (PIN) are examples of precancerous conditions.
Normal Cell Proliferation
- Ongoing throughout life to allow development, repair, or regeneration of tissues.
- Cell division is tightly regulated at multiple levels.
Phases of the Cell Cycle
- M-phase: Mitosis and cytokinesis (prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase).
- GAP 2 (G2): RNA and protein synthesis required for M-phase.
- S-phase: DNA synthesis.
- GAP 1 (G1): RNA and protein synthesis required for S-phase.
- GAP 0 (G0): Quiescent (resting) cells.
Mitosis and Cytokinesis
- Prophase: Chromosomes condense; centrosomes assemble; nuclear membrane begins to break down.
- Metaphase: Chromosomes align and attach to spindle fibers.
- Anaphase: Sister chromatids pull apart and migrate to poles.
- Telophase: Chromatids de-condense; new nuclear membranes form.
- Cytokinesis: Nuclear membrane completely surrounds decondensed chromosomes; contractile ring pinches off cytoplasm of "mother" cell and daughter cells are formed.
Positive Regulators of the Cell Cycle
- Cyclin B, nuclear D1, cyclin E, cyclin A, CDCs play a role in regulating the cell cycle
- Program influenced by extracellular signals.
- Cell autonomous program.
Regulation of the Cell Cycle
- Activity of cyclin:CDK complexes is regulated at multiple levels.
- Expression of regulatory cyclin component of complex (e.g., E2F, pRb).
- Regulation of cyclin:CDK complex activity (phosphorylation/de-phosphorylation by CDC25 phosphatases).
- Direct inhibition of complex activity by cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitors (e.g., p27).
Cell Cycle Inhibitors
- p16INK4A, p15INK4B, p18INK4C, p19INK4D, p57Kip2, p27Kip1, p21 Cip1 play a role in inhibiting the cell cycle.
Cell Cycle Checkpoints
- G2 checkpoint: Before entry into M-phase to check if DNA replication is complete.
- DNA damage checkpoint: Halting replication if DNA is damaged.
- Spindle assembly checkpoint: Checking for proper assembly of mitotic spindle before anaphase.
Hallmarks of Cancer
- Sustained proliferative signaling: Cell loses requirement for growth factors to stimulate cell division (e.g., Ras, HER2).
- Evading growth suppressors: Loss of function of tumour suppressor, such as pRB, p53.
- Resisting cell death: Cancer cells gain ability to avoid apoptosis (e.g., pro-survival factors like IGF).
- Enabling replicative immortality: Tumour cells effectively immortal by rebuilding telomeres using telomerase.
- Inducing angiogenesis: Tumours stay small until they secure a blood supply.
- Activating invasion and metastasis: Cells start to break away from the main tumour, invade surrounding tissue and enter blood vessels.
DNA Mutations in Cancer Development
- DNA in cells is damaged around 10,000 times per day.
- Most of this damage is repaired.
- Mutations occur randomly throughout the genome, often in non-coding regions or within genes with no effect.
- Accumulated mutations can cause genome instability, increasing the likelihood of further mutations in cancer development.
Stages of Cancer and Survival
- Initiation: First mutations that prompt increased proliferation.
- Promotion: Additional mutations for further proliferation.
- Tumor progression: The tumour grows further.
- Stages of cancer (e.g., 1-4) are important for determining treatment and prognosis.
- TNM scheme (tumor, node, metastasis) gives additional details for grading.
- Survival rates vary considerably between cancer types and stages of diagnosis.
Leading Cancer Types
- Leading causes of cancer death or diagnosis as of 2019 were given.
How does cancer kill?
- Interferes with normal organ function (blockage, deprivation of nutrients, pressure).
- Interferes with metabolic processes (malnutrition, calcium changes, liver enzyme function, blood cell or hormone production).
- Causes muscle wasting.
Risk Factors for Cancer
- Age.
- Genetics.
- Smoking.
- Inactivity/lack of physical activity.
- Obesity.
- Alcohol.
- Diet (e.g., lack of fruit, vegetables, salt, processed foods, red meats).
- Infections (cause ~18% of cancers globally.)
Cancer Screening Programmes
- Early detection, diagnosis, and treatment improve patient outcomes.
- Self-checks can be useful for skin, breast, and testicular cancers.
- NHS screening programmes are available for bowel, cervical, and breast cancers.
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Description
This quiz provides an insightful overview of cancer, highlighting its nature as a collection of diseases characterized by uncontrolled cell growth. Learn about the various types of cancer, their origins, and therapeutic approaches employed in treatment. Explore the complexities and uniqueness of each cancer case.
