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Questions and Answers
Which layer of tissue acts as a connection between skin and underlying structures while providing insulation and facilitating movement?
What type of connective tissue forms a protective covering around muscles and tendons beneath the superficial fascia?
Which of the following is a primary function of bone tissue?
Which type of cells is responsible for breaking down and remodeling bone tissue?
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Bone tissue is made up of organic and inorganic components. What percentage of the bone matrix is composed of inorganic salts?
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Which structural feature of the deep fascia assists in venous return from the lower limbs?
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What type of bone consists of a dense bony matrix with minimal space and no bone marrow?
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In which areas of the body is the superficial fascia particularly well developed?
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What type of joint allows for no movement and is formed primarily of hyaline cartilage?
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Which of the following joints is classified as a bi-axial joint?
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Which component of a synovial joint is responsible for secreting synovial fluid?
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What type of joint is formed primarily of fibro-cartilage and allows for compression and limited movement?
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Which joint type is characterized by flat articular surfaces allowing minimal gliding movement?
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In synovial joints, which structure is specifically known for absorbing shock and minimizing friction?
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Which type of joint allows for rotation around a single longitudinal axis?
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What type of joint is exemplified by the knee joint, which contains intra-articular ligaments?
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What classification of bone development occurs when young bone cells are arranged in a membrane-like structure?
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Which type of bone is characterized by having a shaft and two articular ends?
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At what stage of intra-uterine life do the primary centers of ossification appear in long bones?
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Which of the following bones are examples of short bones?
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What is the primary purpose of sesamoid bones?
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Which part of the skeletal system is NOT included in the appendicular skeleton?
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What type of bone primarily replaces bone marrow with air spaces, communicating with the nasal cavity?
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Which type of joint is characterized as a junction between two or more bones?
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Which anatomical term describes a part that is located towards the head?
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What movement is described as bringing a limb back towards the body?
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In anatomical position, which direction are the palms facing?
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Which anatomical plane divides the body into right and left parts?
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Which term refers to the movement of the foot that brings the toes closer to the front of the leg?
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What type of anatomy involves studying the structure of cells under a microscope?
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Which body cavity specifically contains the heart and lungs?
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The term that describes a structure positioned behind another structure is:
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What is the primary function of the epidermis within the skin?
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Which layer of the skin is primarily responsible for providing strength and elasticity?
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Which of the following is NOT an appendage of the skin?
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What type of cells primarily compose the stratum corneum?
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Which of the following statements about the dermis is accurate?
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Where are papillary ridges mainly found?
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What is the main nutritive source for the epidermis?
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What is the primary role of the stratum basale within the epidermis?
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Study Notes
Introduction to Anatomy
- Anatomy is the study of the normal structure of organs in living organisms.
- Macroscopic anatomy studies organs with the naked eye.
- Microscopic anatomy (Histology) studies cells under a microscope.
- Developmental anatomy studies development in the womb.
- Applied anatomy uses anatomical facts in medicine and surgery.
- Surface anatomy identifies organ borders on the skin surface.
- Radiographic anatomy uses imaging techniques like CT, MRI, and X-ray.
Anatomical Position & Anatomical Planes
- In the anatomical position, the human is standing erect with:
- Face and eyes looking forward
- Arms hanging beside the trunk
- Palms facing forward
- The sagittal plane divides the body into right and left parts.
- The median plane divides the body into two equal halves.
- The coronal plane divides the body into front and back parts.
- The transverse plane divides the body into upper and lower parts.
Anatomical Terms
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Terms of relationship:
- Anterior: towards the front
- Posterior: towards the back
- Superior: towards the head
- Inferior: towards the feet
- Medial: closer to the median plane
- Lateral: away from the median plane
- Proximal: nearer to the trunk
- Distal: away from the trunk
- Ventral: towards the abdomen
- Dorsal: towards the back
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Terms of comparison:
- Cranial: towards the head
- Caudal: towards the tail
Terms of Movements
- Flexion: bending a joint
- Extension: straightening a joint
- Abduction: moving away from the median plane
- Adduction: moving towards the median plane
- Circumduction: multi-axial movement involving flexion, abduction, extension, and adduction in sequence
- Protraction: movement forward
- Retraction: movement backward
- Dorsiflexion: moving toes towards the front of the leg
- Plantarflexion: moving toes downward
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Rotation: turning movement around a single axis
- Supination of the hand: palm facing forward
- Pronation of the hand: palm facing backward
- Inversion of the foot: sole facing inward
- Eversion of the foot: sole facing outward
Body Cavities
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Ventral Body Cavities:
- Thoracic cavity contains lungs and heart
- Abdominal & pelvic cavities contain abdominal and pelvic viscera.
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Dorsal body cavities:
- Cranial cavity contains the brain
- Vertebral canal contains the spinal cord
Skin & Fascia
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Skin:
- The outer surface of the body.
- It consists of two layers:
- Epidermis (superficial epithelial layer)
- Dermis (deeper connective tissue layer)
- It has four appendages:
- Hairs
- Nails
- Sebaceous glands
- Sweat glands
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Functions of the skin:
- Protects underlying tissues from damage
- Acts as a barrier against microorganisms
- Regulates heat exchange
- Largest sensory organ
- Absorbs substances
- Activates vitamin D
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Epidermis: stratified squamous epithelium (keratinized) composed of five layers
- Stratum corneum: non-nucleated cells filled with keratin, 10-30 layers.
- Stratum lucidum: found in thick skin, non-nucleated clear cells.
- Stratum granulosum: granular cytoplasm containing lipids.
- Stratum spinosum: polyhedral cells connected by desmosomes.
- Stratum basale: proliferating basal layer on the basement membrane.
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Dermis: consists of connective tissue containing:
- Blood vessels
- Lymph vessels
- Sensory nerve endings
- Hair follicles
- Sweat glands
- Sebaceous glands
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Flexure lines of skin:
- Linear furrows opposite joints, especially on the palm, wrist, and fingers
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Papillary ridges:
- Slightly raised ridges on the palm, sole, and fingertips, creating fingerprints.
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Blood supply of the skin:
- The epidermis is avascular and receives nourishment from the dermis.
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Nerve supply of the skin:
- Sensory receptors for touch, temperature, and pain. -Autonomic sympathetic fibers for sweat glands, sebaceous glands, and arrector pilorum muscles.
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Superficial fascia (Hypodermis):
- Loose areolar connective or adipose tissue that connects skin to underlying structures.
- Well-developed in the trunk, abdomen, buttocks, and face.
- Absent in the ear pinna, eyelids, penis, and scrotum.
- Condensed in the scalp, palm, and sole.
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Functions of superficial fascia:
- Facilitates skin movement
- Forms a bed for blood vessels and nerves
- Retains body warmth
- Contributes to body contour
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Deep fascia:
- Dense connective tissue in sheets that surround muscles and tendons.
- Absent in the face, scalp, and anterior abdominal wall.
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Functions of deep fascia:
- Invests muscles to create tension and aid muscle action
- Sends septa between muscles
- Invests delicate structures to keep them fixed
- Thickened in the palm and sole for protection
- Aids venous return (muscle pump)
Bone Tissue & Functions
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Bone Tissue:
- Hard connective tissue forming 18% of body weight.
- 206 bones in the human body.
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Cells:
- Osteocytes: mature bone cells.
- Osteoblasts: young bone cells.
- Osteoclasts: phagocytic cells for bone remodeling.
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Matrix:
- Organic (collagen type-1): 30% of dry bone.
- Inorganic salts (calcium carbonate and calcium phosphate): 70%
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Functions of Bone:
- Provides body shape
- Forms joints for locomotion
- Protects vital organs
- Contains bone marrow for blood cell formation
- Stores calcium and phosphorus
Types of Bones
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Histological classification:
- Compact bone: bony matrix with tiny spaces and no bone marrow. Examples: shaft of long bones.
- Spongy bone: bony matrix with large spaces rich in bone marrow. Examples: ends of long bones.
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Developmental classification:
- Intramembranous ossification: young bone cells arranged in membrane-like structures, as in flat bones.
- Intracartilaginous ossification: young bone cells develop from a cartilaginous model, as in long bones.
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Morphological classification:
-
Long bones: present in the limbs, with a shaft and two articular ends.
- Growth of long bones: developed by intracartilaginous ossification.
- Primary ossification centers appear at the shaft (diaphysis) around 8-12 weeks of intra-uterine life.
- Secondary ossification centers appear at the ends (epiphysis) around birth.
- The epiphyseal cartilage plate persists for bone growth until 19-25 years of age.
- Blood Supply: nutrient artery and vein, periosteal twigs, articular vessels.
- Growth of long bones: developed by intracartilaginous ossification.
- Short bones: small cubical bones. Examples: carpal and tarsal bones.
- Flat bones: wide flat surfaces for protection and muscle attachment. Examples: skull cap and scapula.
- Irregular bones: irregular shapes. Examples: vertebrae.
- Sesamoid bones: small bones within tendons; protect the tendon from friction. Example: patella.
- Pneumatic bones: air spaces replace bone marrow and connect to the nasal cavity. Example: paranasal sinuses.
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Long bones: present in the limbs, with a shaft and two articular ends.
Skeletal System
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Axial skeleton:
- Skull and mandible
- Vertebral column
- Sternum
- Ribs
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Appendicular skeleton:
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Upper limb:
- Shoulder girdle (clavicle and scapula)
- Arm bone (humerus)
- Forearm bones (ulna and radius)
- Carpal bones (8 bones)
- Metacarpal bones
- Phalanges (3 per finger; 2 for thumb)
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Lower limb:
- Pelvic girdle (hip bones)
- Thigh bone (femur)
- Leg bones (tibia and fibula)
- Tarsal bones (7 bones)
- Metatarsal bones
- Phalanges (3 per toe; 2 for big toe)
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Upper limb:
Joints
- Joints are junctions or articulations between two or more bones.
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Types of Joints:
- Fibrous joints: bones connected by fibrous tissue. Examples: sutures of the skull and syndesmosis between the tibia and fibula.
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Cartilaginous joints: bones connected by cartilaginous tissue.
- Primary cartilaginous joint: formed of hyaline cartilage, allows no movement. Example: epiphyseal cartilage plate.
- Secondary cartilaginous joint: formed of fibrocartilage, allows limited compression and torsion. Example: intervertebral disc.
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Synovial joints: contain a joint cavity with synovial fluid and a fibrous capsule.
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Features of synovial joints:
- Articular cartilage: hyaline cartilage, smooth surfaces with no vessels or nerves.
- Fibrous capsule: fibrous sac enclosing the joint, perforated by vessels and nerves.
- Synovial membrane: secretes synovial fluid.
- Synovial fluid: lubricates the joint.
- Ligaments: strong fibrous bands connecting bones.
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Structures inside synovial joints:
- Articular disc: fibrocartilage, absorbs shock and minimizes friction. Example: temporomandibular joint, knee joint, sternoclavicular joint.
- Intra-articular ligaments: ligaments inside the joint cavity. Example: cruciate ligaments in the knee.
- Muscle tendons: example: long head of biceps tendon in the shoulder.
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Features of synovial joints:
Classification of Synovial Joints:
- Plane joints: flat articular surfaces, minimal gliding movement. Examples: intercarpal joints.
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Uni-axial joints: two movements around a single axis.
- Hinge joints: transverse axis movement. Example: elbow joint.
- Pivot joints: longitudinal axis movement. Example: median Atlanto-axial joint.
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Bi-axial joints: four movements around two axes.
- Ellipsoid joint: oval convexity on elliptical concavity. Example: radiocarpal joint.
- Saddle joint: concavo-convex opposing surfaces of saddle shape. Example: carpometacarpal joint of the thumb.
- Multi-axial joints: free movement. Example: ball and socket joints (hip and shoulder joints).
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Description
This quiz covers the basics of anatomy, including the study of various anatomical fields such as macroscopic, microscopic, and developmental anatomy. Additionally, it discusses the anatomical position, anatomical planes, and terms of relation. Test your knowledge and understanding of these essential concepts in anatomy.
