Intro to Chemistry

Matter & Atoms

• Matter occupies space and has mass
• Atoms are composed of protons, neutrons, and electrons

Chemical Bonding

• Covalent bonds involve atoms sharing electrons, exemplified by H₂O
• Ionic bonds are attractions between oppositely charged ions, exemplified by NaCl
• Hydrogen bonds are weak attractions between polar molecules, exemplified by H₂O

Water's Unique Properties

• Water demonstrates cohesion and adhesion
• Water has a high heat capacity
• Water exhibits solvent properties
• Ice floats due to its lower density as a solid

Organic Molecules

• Carbon-based molecules are critical for life
• Functional groups influence a molecule's solubility and function

Amino Acids & Peptides

• Proteins consist of amino acid polymers linked by peptide bonds

Levels of Protein Structure

• Primary structure is the amino acid sequence
• Secondary structure includes α-helices and β-sheets
• Tertiary structure involves 3D folding due to R-group interactions
• Quaternary structure involves multiple polypeptide chains

Protein Functions

• Enzymes accelerate reactions
• Structural proteins like collagen and keratin provide support
• Transport proteins, such as hemoglobin, carry substances
• Hormones like insulin act as chemical messengers
• Immune proteins, such as antibodies, defend against foreign invaders

Denaturation & Misfolded Proteins

• Denaturation results from heat, pH changes, or mutations
• Misfolded proteins are associated with diseases like Alzheimer's and sickle-cell anemia

Carbohydrates

• Monosaccharides are simple sugars like glucose and fructose
• Disaccharides consist of two sugars linked by glycosidic bonds, such as sucrose and lactose
• Polysaccharides include starch (plant energy storage), glycogen (animal energy storage), cellulose (plant structure), and chitin (fungal cell walls, insect exoskeletons)

Lipids

• Triglycerides consist of glycerol plus three fatty acids and store energy
• Phospholipids form cell membrane structures with a hydrophilic head and hydrophobic tail
• Steroids, including hormones like testosterone and estrogen, and cholesterol

Macromolecule Synthesis & Breakdown

• Dehydration synthesis links monomers by removing water
• Hydrolysis breaks down polymers into monomers by adding water

Properties of Life

• Order, reproduction, growth, energy processing, regulation, response to environment, and adaptation

Biological Organization

• Molecule → Organelle → Cell → Tissue → Organ → Organ System → Organism → Population → Community → Ecosystem → Biosphere

Cell Theory

• All living things consist of cells
• Cells arise from pre-existing cells
• Cells are the basic unit of life

Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells

• Prokaryotic cells lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles
• Eukaryotic cells possess both a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles

Cell Structures Found in All Cells

• Plasma membrane, cytoplasm, DNA, and ribosomes are found in all cells

Differences Between Plant & Animal Cells

• Plant cells have a cell wall, central vacuole, and chloroplasts, while animal cells do not

Cell Organelles & Their Functions

• Compartmentalization allows multitasking, separation of reactions, and concentration of reactants
• Free ribosomes make cytoplasmic proteins
• Bound ribosomes make membrane/export proteins

Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER)

• Rough ER synthesizes proteins for secretion/membrane insertion
• Smooth ER synthesizes lipids, detoxifies, and stores Ca²⁺

Golgi Apparatus

• Modifies, sorts, and ships proteins

Lysosomes

• Breaks down waste and cellular debris

Mitochondria & Chloroplasts

• Mitochondria perform cellular respiration
• Chloroplasts conduct photosynthesis
• Both convert energy

Endosymbiotic Theory

• Mitochondria and chloroplasts originated from ancient bacteria

Plasma Membrane Functions

• The plasma membrane serves as a limiting boundary, facilitates transport, identification, communication, and attachment

Fluid Mosaic Model

• The plasma membrane comprises phospholipids, proteins, cholesterol, and carbohydrates

Transport Mechanisms

• Passive transport doesn't require energy (diffusion, osmosis, facilitated diffusion)
• Active Transport requires ATP (e.g., sodium-potassium pump)
• Bulk transport includes endocytosis (phagocytosis, pinocytosis, receptor-mediated) and exocytosis

Cell Signaling & Communication

• Receptor proteins bind signaling molecules
• Signal transduction pathways relay messages
• Glycoproteins act as cellular ID tags

Basic Chemistry & Molecular Structure

• Atom: The smallest unit of matter retaining an element's properties
• Matter: Anything that occupies space and has mass
• Element: A substance composed of one type of atom
• Molecule: Two or more atoms covalently bonded
• Compound: A substance made of two or more different elements
• Polar: A molecule with uneven charge distribution
• Hydrophilic: Water-attracting molecules
• Hydrophobic: Water-repelling molecules

Organic Molecules & Reactions

• Monomer: Small molecular unit forming polymers
• Polymer: Large molecules made of repeating monomers
• Dehydration Synthesis: Removes water to bond monomers
• Hydrolysis: Adds water to break polymers into monomers
• Denaturation: Loss of a protein's structure due to environmental changes

Cell Structure & Function

• Prokaryote vs. Eukaryote: Prokaryotes lack a nucleus and membrane-bound organelles, eukaryotes have them
• Differentiation: Cells develop specialized functions
• Passive Transport: Movement of molecules without energy
• Active Transport: Energy-required movement of molecules

Four Main Organic Molecules

• Carbohydrates are composed of monosaccharides (C, H, O) and function in energy storage (e.g., glucose, starch)
• Proteins are composed of amino acids (C, H, O, N, S) and provide structure and enzymatic functions (e.g., hemoglobin, enzymes)
• Lipids are composed of fatty acids and glycerol (C, H, O) and function in energy storage and membrane structure (e.g., fats, oils)
• Nucleic Acids are composed of nucleotides (C, H, O, N, P) and function in genetic information storage (e.g., DNA, RNA)

Protein Structure

• Primary: Amino acid sequence
• Secondary: Hydrogen bonds form α-helices and β-sheets
• Tertiary: 3D folding due to R-group interactions
• Quaternary: Multiple polypeptide chains combine

Types of Bonds in Biomolecules

• Peptide bonds in proteins
• Glycosidic bonds in carbohydrates
• Ester bonds in lipids
• Phosphodiester bonds in nucleic acids

Carbohydrates & Lipids

• Polysaccharides include starch (plants), glycogen (animals), cellulose (plant structure), and chitin (fungal walls)

Saturated vs. Unsaturated Fats

• Saturated fats are solid at room temperature
• Unsaturated fats are liquid at room temperature

Trans Fats

• Artificially created through hydrogenation
• Are harmful to health

Cell Theory

• All living things consist of cells
• Cells are the basic units of life
• All cells come from pre-existing cells

Properties of Life

• Organization, metabolism, homeostasis, growth, reproduction, response to stimuli, adaptation

Cell Components & Their Functions

• Nucleus: Stores genetic material
• Mitochondria: Energy production (ATP)
• Ribosomes: Protein synthesis
• Endoplasmic Reticulum: Protein (rough ER) & lipid (smooth ER) production
• Golgi Apparatus: Modifies and packages proteins
• Lysosomes: Digestive enzymes
• Plasma Membrane: Regulates transport in/out of the cell

Differences in Cell Types

• Prokaryotic vs. Eukaryotic Cells: Presence of a nucleus and organelles in eukaryotes
• Plant vs. Animal Cells: Plant cells have cell walls, chloroplasts, and central vacuoles