Influences on Food Selection

• Food selection is influenced by sensory, nutritional, cultural, religious, psychological, sociological, and budgetary criteria.

Sensory Criteria

• Sight, odor, taste, touch, and hearing are the sensory criteria influencing food selection.
• Visual appearance gives the first impression based on color, shape, consistency, and defects.
• Odor evaluates food quality/desirability since humans distinguish thousands of odors.
• Odor classification systems include spicy, flowery, fruity, resinous, burnt, foul, fragrant, acid, and caprylic.
• Taste is a key factor in food selection utilizing taste buds detecting dissolved substances via cilia.
• Six taste stimuli include sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami (savory), and oleogustus (fat).
• Sweetness comes from sugars, glycols, alcohols, and aldehydes; exact mechanism unclear.
• Sourness is from food acids and hydrogen ions (H+), potentially protecting against acid-base imbalance.
• Bitterness comes from caffeine, theobromine, and phenolic compounds, warning against toxins.
• Saltiness comes from ionized salts like sodium ions (Na+) in sodium chloride (NaCl).
• Umami (savory) comes from glutamate, an amino acid in beef broth.
• Oleogustus (taste for fat) comes from medium- and long-chain esterified fatty acids.
• Touch conveys texture, consistency, astringency, and temperature.
• Hearing regarding food sounds (sizzling, crunching, popping) provides their quality and freshness.

Nutritional Criteria

• Conventional foods contain natural bioactive compounds.
• Modified foods are fortified or enriched with bioactive components.
• Synthesized foods contain synthesized ingredients providing prebiotic benefits.

Cultural and Religious Criteria

• Childhood taste preferences and religious rules form long-term food habits.
• Kosher means food is "fit, right, proper" to eat under Jewish dietary laws.
• Halal means foods are permissible under Islamic law.

Psychological and Sociological Criteria

• Advertising, social conscience, and peer pressure affect food choices.

Budgetary Criteria

• Cost determines food types, brands, and dining out frequency.
• Time constraints may cause use of convenient foods that are more expensive and less nutritious.

Taste Stimuli Mechanisms

• Sweetness comes from the chemical makeup of sugars, glycols, alcohols, and aldehydes.
• Sourness comes from food acids and their hydrogen ions (H+).
• Bitterness comes from caffeine, theobromine, and phenolic compounds.
• Saltiness is a taste caused by ionized salts, such as sodium ions (Na+) in sodium chloride (NaCl).
• Umami is a taste caused by glutamate, an amino acid giving a beef broth taste.
• Oleogustus is recently identified taste caused by medium- and long-chain esterified fatty acids.

Odor Intensity

• Freshly baked bread has more intense odor than cold foods.
• Heat turns substances into volatile form with volatile molecules (gas) carrying odors.
• Hot foods release more volatile molecules, making odors easier to detect.

Taste vs. Flavor

• Taste relies solely on taste buds signaling sweet, sour, bitter, salty, umami, and oleogustus to the brain.
• Flavor has taste, odor, and mouthfeel; volatile compounds reaching the nose contribute significant amounts to flavor.

Cultural Influences

• Cultural influences on food intake include place of birth, geography/climate, and influences on manners.

Religious Influences

• Buddhism includes vegetarianism/veganism emphasizing non-violence and compassion.
• Judaism has dietary laws (Kashrut) denoting kosher foods and preparation methods.
• Islam has dietary laws (Halal) that prohibit consumption of pork, alcohol, and blood.

CH 2

Sensory Evaluation

• Sensory evaluation scientifically measures how people respond to food products using senses.
• Analytical (effective) sensory tests are more objective, focusing on discernible differences.
• Affective (acceptance/preference) tests are more subjective, based on preferences.
• Taste panels are individuals ranging from randomly selected people to trained experts (5).
• Sample preparation controls food presentation to ensure consistency and minimize bias.

Objective Evaluation

• Objective evaluations use instruments to measure food characteristics quantitatively.
• Physical tests measure size, shape, weight, volume, density, moisture, texture, and viscosity..
• Chemical tests analyze bacteria, yeast, and mold; create quality control standards; nutrition labels etc.
• Emerging technologies include electronic noses (e-noses) detecting aroma chemicals.

Sensory vs. Objective Evaluations

• Sensory evaluation is expensive but crucial for product R&D.
• Objective evaluation is reliable, repeatable, and efficient for quality control.
• Both evaluations are needed for complete food quality review.

Discriminative Tests Sensitivity

• Threshold tests determine the smallest detectable substance concentration.
• Dilution tests determine the smallest detectable substance amount.

Discriminative Tests Difference

• Ranking tests include more than 2 samples presented and compared for intensity of a specific characteristic.
• Ordinal tests use words like weak, moderate, and strong to describe differing attribute magnitude samples

Key Concepts

• Viscosity is the resistance of a fluid to flowing freely.
• Chromatography separates and measures compounds in foods.
• Rheology studies the flow and deformation of matter.

Sensory (Subjective) vs. Objective Evaluation

• Sensory Evaluation is subjective assessment based on human responses (sight, taste, smell, touch, hearing).
• Objective Evaluation relies on lab instruments to measure food characteristics quantitatively.
• Sensory Evaluation relies on personal opinions, which can vary between panelists.
• Objective Evaluation provides consistent, repeatable, reliable measurements for quality control.

Discriminative vs. Descriptive Tests

• Discriminative Tests are analytical tests determining any difference between food samples
• Descriptive Tests are analytical in nature, identifying and quantifying differences.
• Descriptive Tests provide sensory profiles describing sample attributes like sweetness, bitterness, texture, and aroma.

Taste Panel Setup

• Choose a tasting panel of participants with no sensory impairments.
• Conduct tests minimizing distractions and outside influences in a controlled testing environment.
• Maintain consistent lighting to avoid color perception bias.
• Samples tested should come from the same batch, be equivalent in portion size, and be the same temperature.

Difference Testing Examples

• Triangle Test includes panelists receiving three samples with two identical, and one different.
• Duo-Trio Test has the tasting panel taste a (reference) sample followed by two other samples.
• Paired Comparison Test includes panelists comparing two samples side-by-side to the one they prefer.

CH 3

Water

• Water makes up 60-70% of the human body, making it the simplest but most essential nutrient.
• Fruits, veggies, meats, and milk are sources of water.
• Water transfers heat, acts as a solvent, and preserves foods.

Carbohydrates

• Sugars, starches, and fiber are carbohydrates found primarily in plants.
• Grains, legumes, fruits, and vegetables are rich in carbohydrates.
• The saccharide with carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen composes carbohydrates.
• Monosaccharides, disaccharides, and polysaccharides are types of carbohydrates.
• Carbohydrates provide sweetness, solubility, texture, and fermentation in foods.

Lipids (Fats)

• Lipids are fats and oils derived from plant/animal sources.
• Animal lipid sources are meats, poultry, and dairy products.
• Plant lipid sources are seeds, nuts, vegetable oils, avocados, olives, and coconut.
• Lipids compose of carbon, hydrogen, and oxygen.
• Triglycerides are the most common lipid, containing 3 fatty acids attached to a glycerol molecule.
• Phospholipids are similar to triglycerides but with one fatty acid replaced by a phosphorus-containing compound.
• Sterols are complex molecules with interconnected rings of carbon atoms, including cholesterol and plant sterols.

Proteins

• Proteins are essential for growth, made different from carbs by presence of containing nitrogen.
• Animal protein sources are Meat, poultry, fish, eggs, and dairy products.
• Plant protein sources are legumes and grains (quinoa, amaranth)
• Proteins consist of amino acids linked together by peptide bonds.
• Proteins are for hydration, denaturation/coagulation, enzymatic reactions, buffering, and browning in foods.

Vitamins & Minerals

• Vitamins/minerals function at cellular level to enable various processes but do not provide energy.
• Enrichment means nutrients lost during processing are added back.
• Fortification means nutrients not were not originally present are added.

Non-Nutritive Food Components

• Food additives improve appeal, extend storage, maximize performance, and protect nutrients.
• Plant compounds contain disease preventative phytochemicals.

6 Basic Nutrient Groups

• The six basic nutrient groups include water, carbohydrates, lipids, proteins, vitamins, and minerals.
• Water has no calories
• Carbohydrates provide 4 kcal per gram.
• Lipids provide 9 kcal per gram.
• Proteins provide 4 kcal per gram.

Solutes & Water Freezing Point

• The addition of solutes to water decreases its freezing point due to freezing point depression

Monosaccharides Disaccharides Oligosaccharides Polysaccharides

• Monosaccharides are simple sugars with one saccharide unit such as glucose, fructose, and galactose.
• Disaccharides contain two monosaccharides linked together such as sucrose, lactose, and maltose.
• Oligosaccharides contain three to ten sugar units such as raffinose and stachyose.
• Polysaccharides are long chains of glucose units such as Starch, glycogen, and cellulose.

Triglycerides

• Triglycerides structure consists of one glycerol molecule esterified to three fatty acids.
• Fatty acids differ in the length and degree of saturation.

Amino Acids

• Amino acids have a central carbon atom to which an amine group (−NH2), a carboxyl group (−COOH), a hydrogen atom (H), and a unique side chain (R group) are attached.
• Complete Protein contains all essential amino acids in adequate amounts (typically from animal sources).
• Incomplete Protein lacks one or more essential amino acids (usually derived from plant sources).

Ch 5

Seasonings and Flavorings

• Salt enhances flavor and helps preservation through sea, rock, kosher, and flavored salts.
• Pepper is made from berries of tropical shrub with Black pepper from unripe berries, white pepper from ripe berries.
• Herbs flavor using leaves (basil, sage, thyme, oregano, parsley).
• Spices flavor using other parts of the plant (cinnamon, saffron, ginger).
• Flavor enhancers boost flavor without contributing their own (MSG, oil extracts).
• Marinades tenderize and add flavor plus have oil, acid, and flavorings.
• Rubs and pastes are flavored seasoning blends applied before cooking.
• Breadings are coatings from crumbs, or other ingredients.
• Batters are wet flour mixtures used to coat foods before frying.
• Condiments are prepared relishes for cooking or at the table mustard, ketchup, and mayonnaise).

Mixing Techniques

• Stirring is the simplest method using a circular motion.
• Beating uses vigorous back-and-forth motion to smooth the mixture.
• Blending mixes to complete ingredient combination making one whole.
• Binding makes ingredients adhere to one another ex breading.
• Creaming makes fat and sugar beaten together for a light and airiness.
• Whipping Vigorous mixing incorporates air into the ingredients during combination.
• Folding makes the mixture fold using light incorporation of another using each pass of blade.

Measuring Techniques

• Measure ingredients in grams and mLs for consistency.
• Graduated cylinders are used for liquids and flat-topped cups for solids
• Read liquids at eye level while making sure of the pressing downward solid fats, and leveling off of dry ingredients.

Cutlery handling and styles

• Handles must be firmly gripped with one hand for guidance as uniformity is key for even cooking.
• Styles include slicing, julienne, and chopping styles.

Importance of Food Preparation

• Coking is both a craft and an art, as noted by Arno Schmidt, a former executive chef.
• Mastering basic techniques is key to achieving consistent culinary results by achieving food handling, measurements and food science.

Moist-Heat Preparation Techniques

• Scalding occurs in Water at 150°F (66°C) for milk, and can enhance ingredient integration.
• Poaching occurs in Water at 160-180°F (71-82°C) for delicate fish and eggs for not breaking apart.
• Simmering occurs just below boiling at 180°F (82°C) gentle cooking of soups and stews .
• Stewing requires the use simmering ingredients in small quantities of liquid for flavoring sauce making.
• Braising is Similar to stewing, but includes the browning of meat first.
• Boiling occurs in water at 212°F (100°C) often followed by gentle heat for cooking completion of vegetables.
• Steaming uses boiling water that retains nutrients, texture, and food flavor during the process.

Dry-Heat Preparation Techniques are as follows:

• Baking for Hot air at (average: 350°F/177°C) using rack position, and pan color affect outcomes.
• Roasting often uses basting for moisture in meats
• Broiling utilizes high heat and tender meats for quick food preparation.
• Grilling uses heat from a positioned heat source during food preparation
• Barbecuing use cooking meats over low heat for a slow cooking process.
• Frying is heating of fat that includes sautéing, stir-frying, pan-frying, and deep-frying during food handling,

Heat Transfer

• Conduction: Occurs during heat transfer to the pan, and direct food preparation.
• Convection: Occurs during ovens or direct liquid use.
• Radiation: Occurs through heated microwave and broiling electromagnetic waves.
• Induction takes place in magneticaly conducted pan heating without direct contact.

Moist-heat vs. Dry-heat preparation

• Scalding occurs in Water at 150°F (66°C) with milk, which can enhance ingredient integration through gentle cooking.
• Steraming retains prepared flavours through added nutrients during food processing.
• Roasting, similar to baking, involves meats, with possible basting for moisture.
• Combining methods increases product flavors through browning.
• The rapid nature enhances a better heat controlled product during quick foods.

Knife Cutlery

• Julienne creates thin, matchstick-size slices.
• Bâtonnet creates a sticklike shape.
• Shredding involves grinding of thin strips.
• Chiffonade is cutting by leafy cutting vegetable.
• Dicing cuts uniform pieces

Volume measuring techniques

• 3 tsp = 1 tbsp
• 16 tbsp = 1 cup
• 8 oz = 1 cup
• 2 cups = 1 pint
• 16 oz = 1 pint
• 454 grams = 1 lb
• 2 pints = 1 quart

Volume Measuring Techniques

• Liquids measurements require a pouring measurement for measurements
• Eggs normally require that large sizing is used during cooking
• Fats have both solid and liquids and have to make butter and use 1 pound = 2 cups
• Sugar has measurements for measuring the flour cups used.
• Flour requires volume measurement from mixing

Ch 29: Food Regulation

FDA

• FDA enforces The Federal Food, Drug, and Cosmetic Act of 1938 to insure safe production for consumption
• Responsibilities include facility process inspections, standards setting and labeling requirements.

EPA

• EPA sets tolerance levels for pesticide residues in foods inspecting vegetables for fresh pesticide content

USDA

• The USDA was formed to reduces hunger, improve productivity and grades different meats food groups.
  • Examples include poultry, grains, eggs dairy, and many others

CDC

• The CDC tracks the origin, and outbreaks of foodborne related diseases.

Ch 15: Food Handling and soups

stocks

• Stocks are base soups from water and bones,
• White stock is extracted from neck and bones.
• Brown stock is extracted from carmelied water.
• Flavor comes mainly from bone marrow, not the flavor of the food directly

Key Ingredients

• Water helps to bring all the compounds by helping extract flavor.
• All bones should be washed before flavor extraction for sanitation

types of meat extraction

• mature taste meats will yield the richest flavor of the stock base
• Vegetables are added at the end of stock for taste control.
• Poultry extractions should use old free range chickens carcass base
• Fish extractions from bones and frames takes 30 minuets

storage

• Avoid putting hot stocks in the fridge directly, and freeze by placing by water.

Soups

• Clear vs Thick incorporation
• Add bechamel, creams pureed, and chouwder.

Soup preparation

Thickened with baised dairy based products

Preparation is key

avoid by adding acid to products that don't require it and blend products with care

Salads

• Dressings such as vingaritas, emulsions such as mayonaise.

Prep quality

• Use quality high ingredients.
• Wash Greens
• Dry for added grip

Food Handling

• Gelatins proteins found in gels

Preparation

• use water to thin product and cool and heat mixture to product consistency

ch 13 veggies

• veggies are essential for adding flavor volume and nutrition.

classification groups

• various plant parts like roots, bulbs, stems, leaves, seeds, and flowers.
• Fruits masquerading as Vegetables: Tomatoes, cucumbers, peppers.

composition of veggies

• Plant walls are undigestable.
• vacules hold food and hydration.
• intercellular spaces promote crispaness

preparation and storage

cold and humidity are essential factors.

• Store based on respiration
• Short cooking allows the product to maintain quality for longer.

Cooking the following ingredients

• Vegies become softer.
• Minimal water use helps and maintains flavor.

Ch14

classification

fruits have druppes and pomes

historical context

• were transported throught soutwest asia
• have a better way of improving

grading

graded depending on ripeness and other factors

dry and moist heat

these aspects change the flavor and texture

Functional and safety

• Phytochemicals such as antioxidants can reduce diseases and improve immunity.