Indus Valley Civilization Overview

Overview of the Indus Valley Civilization (IVC)

• The Indus Valley Civilization, also known as the Harappan Civilization, is discussed, with points recapped for exam preparation
• Key aspects like bricks, beads, and bones are focused on, giving insight into the civilization’s life and advancements

Genesis of the IVC

• Initially, modern humans evolved from apes and monkeys, and lived as hunters and gatherers in forests and mountains
• Around 7000 BC, humans began domesticating plants and animals in Mehrgarh, Northwest India
• Permanent settlements occurred as a result of domestication
• Settlements fostered advancements, and laid the foundation for the Indus Valley Civilization

Defining Civilization

• A civilization entails an advanced way of life, with modern developments and settled living
• The Indus Valley Civilization is also known as the Harappan Civilization
• The name "Harappan" comes from Harappa, the first discovered site in 1921

Naming Conventions

• The Indus Valley Civilization is named due to its flourishing in the Indus River valley
• The term "Harappan Civilization" is used because Harappa was the first site discovered

Chapter Title Significance

• The chapter title, "Bricks, Beads, and Bones," highlights the material evidence used to reconstruct the history of the IVC
• The Indus Valley Civilization is part of protohistory; written records exist but remain undeciphered
• Historical reconstruction relies on artifacts like bricks, pottery, seals, weights, beads, and copper/bronze articles

Advancements Demonstrated

• Pottery, bricks, and brick-built homes indicate advanced features of the IVC
• Seals, weights, beads, and copper and bronze articles are further evidence of advancements
• The civilization is sometimes called the Chalcolithic phase because of the use of both stone and copper

Phases of the IVC

• Early Phase (6000 BC - 2600 BC): Rural, focused on agriculture
• Mature Phase (2600 BC - 1900 BC): Urbanization and development of cities
• Late Phase (1900 BC - 1300 BC): Declining phase

Key Discoveries and Figures

• 1921: Harappa was discovered by Dayaram Sahani
• 1922: Mohenjo-daro was discovered by Rakhal Das Banerjee
• 1924: John Marshall announced the IVC's discovery and coined its name

Geographical Extent

• The IVC spanned approximately 1,299,600 square kilometers
• Northernmost Site: Manda and Akhnoor in Jammu and Kashmir
• Easternmost Site: Alamgirpur in Uttar Pradesh
• Southernmost Site: Daimabad in Maharashtra
• Westernmost Site: Sutkagan Dor in Balochistan
• Additional Site: Shortugai in Afghanistan

Early Phase Characteristics

• The early phase was rural, unlike the mature phase
• Pottery was distinct, though less refined
• Agriculture was practiced alongside pastoralism
• Settlements were small and few, lacking large buildings

Subsistence Strategies

• Agriculture was primary, proven by charred grains and seeds
• Archaeobotanists studied plant remains
• Crops included wheat, barley, lentils, sesame, and millets
• Bones of animals like gharials, pigs, deer, fish, and fowl prove hunting and gathering

Agricultural Technologies

• Wooden plows were used, pulled by oxen
• Terracotta plow models were found in Cholistan (Pakistan) and Banawali (Haryana)
• Irrigation included canals
• Canals for irrigation were found in Shortugai, and a dockyard in Lothal
• Dholavira had a water reservoir for storage

Urban Planning in Mohenjo-daro

• The town was divided into the Citadel (higher, smaller) and the Lower Town (lower, larger)
• The Citadel contained important buildings, while the Lower Town was residential
• Large walls surrounded the entire settlement

Citadel Structures

• Great Bath: Swimming pool-like, with stairs and drains, possibly for ritual bathing
• Assembly Hall: Hall with pillars, potentially for meetings, though space was limited
• Great Granary/Warehouse: Used for storing grains for later use

Features of the Lower Town

• Houses were built around a courtyard
• Streets were laid out in a grid pattern, intersecting at right angles
• Dwellings were connected to a sophisticated drainage system, with covered drains along the streets
• Houses had bathrooms and wells
• Bricks were uniform in size throughout the settlement, with a 4:2:1 ratio

Privacy and Social Differences

• Doors and windows did not open directly onto main roads
• Windows were placed high for privacy
• Social differences are indicated by houses with staircases

Burial Practices and Social Stratification

• Burials ranged from simple pits to elaborate brick chambers
• Grave goods like pottery were found in some graves
• Expensive ornaments and jewelry were also found
• Differences suggest social stratification

Artifact Analysis and Social Differentiation

• Artifacts were classified as utilitarian or luxury items
• Utilitarian items included needles, scrubbers, and pottery
• Luxury items included faience pots and gold
• Uneven gold distribution indicates social differences

Craft Production

• Craft production was prominent; including bead making, shell objects, metalwork, seal making, and weight making
• Important centers included Chanhudaro, Lothal, and Dholavira
• Chanhudaro was mainly for bead making
• Beads were made from carnelian, quartz, crystal, lapis lazuli, and gold

Shell Working

• Shell working, to create bangles and ladles, occurred in Nageshwar and Balakot

Trade Systems

• Resources were not locally available, trade was essential for the IVC
• The IVC engaged in both internal and external trade
• Internal trade exchanged goods within the civilization
• External trade connected the IVC with distant regions

Sources of Traded Goods

• Shells came from Nageshwar and Balakot
• Lapis Lazuli came from Shortugai (Afghanistan)
• Carnelian came from Lothal (Gujarat)
• Steatite came from Rajasthan (Gujarat)
• Metals came from Rajasthan and Karnataka

Trade Relations and Exchanges

• IVC pottery was found in Ganeshwar-Jodhpura
• Ganeshwar-Jodhpura artifacts were found in the IVC, indicating trade

Meluha, Magan, and Dilmun

• Foreign trade partners included Meluha (IVC), Magan (Oman), and Dilmun (Bahrain)
• Copper from Oman had traces of nickel, which was also found in the IVC
• Mesopotamian scripts mention Meluha as the land of seafarers

Evidence of Trade

• IVC seals, beads, and weights were found in Mesopotamia
• A black pottery jar from Meluha was found in Oman
• Mesopotamian scripts mention the Haja bird (peacock) from Meluha

Long-Distance Trade

• Harappan seals, dice, weights, and beads have been found in Mesopotamia
• Maritime trade is indicated by boats and sea imagery on seals

Seals

• Seals were made from steatite, featuring scripts and animal motifs
• Functioned to seal bags, convey information, and facilitate trade

The Harappan Script

• Harappan script remains undeciphered
• Written right to left in Boustrophedon style with pictographs
• Inscriptions are short; the largest has about 26 signs
• Found on seals, copper tools, jar rims, bones, jewelry, tablets, and a signboard from Dholavira

Weights

• Weights, often chert, lacked markings but used a binary system for lighter weights and a decimal system for heavier weights
• Scales of metal, ivory, and shell were found

Ruling Authority

• Uniformity suggests a centralized ruling authority
• Large Citadel buildings suggest power
• The Priest-King statue from Mohenjo-daro relates to Mesopotamian culture

Perspectives on Political Structure

• Some historians suggest a single ruler
• Others propose multiple kings or a democratic system
• The single-ruler theory is most widely accepted

Reasons for Decline

• Climate change
• Resource depletion
• Flooding
• Deforestation
• Epidemics
• Foreign invasions
• Drying of rivers

Discovery of the IVC

• The Archaeological Survey of India (ASI) was established by the British to explore and document Indian history
• Alexander Cunningham, the first Director-General, is known as the Father of Indian Archaeology
• Cunningham focused on the 4th to 6th centuries BC and missed significance

John Marshall's Contribution

• In 1902, Marshall became Director-General and oversaw the IVC's discovery
• Scientific excavation methods were adopted, and Daya Ram Sahani and Rakhal Das Banerjee excavated Harappa and Mohenjo-daro
• Marshall's discovery pushed Indian civilization back 2000 years

Limitations in Excavation Techniques

• Marshall preferred horizontal excavations, hindering chronological ordering

Wheeler's Stratigraphic Approach

• In 1944, Mortimer Wheeler became Director-General and used stratigraphic excavation, identifying the relative layers of discoveries

Challenges and Interpretations

• Limited sources meant historians classified materials by composition, usage, and context
• Artifacts, like the Priest-King statue, were compared with those of other civilizations

Religion and Worship

• Initially, unusual artifacts were linked to religion
• Figurines of women with headdresses were called mother goddesses
• The Great Bath and fire altars suggested rituals
• Seals depicted plants and animals, indicating nature worship
• The Pashupati seal shows a figure in a yogic position, surrounded by animals

Multiple Interpretations of Religious Symbols

• Pashupati's identity is debated; some link the figure to Rudra or Shiva
• The Pashupati seal shows a deity with animals
• Some suggest the figure was a shaman
• Mythical figures like the unicorn were found on seals
• Amulets suggest belief in ghosts/spirits