Indigenous Nations and the Fur Trade

Podcast

Play an AI-generated podcast conversation about this lesson

Questions and Answers

Which Indigenous nations were targets of Iroquois armies in addition to the Abenakis and Susquehannocks?

Cherokees and Utes

Choctaws and Chickasaws

Pueblos and Navajos

Shawnees and Quapaws (correct)

What necessitated the maintenance of diplomatic ties to colonial suppliers for the Iroquois?

The adoption of horses

The adoption of firearms and need for gunpowder (correct)

The quest for land expansion

The need for trade routes

What significant event took place in 1701 involving 39 Indigenous nations?

A peace treaty at Lake Superior

The Great Peace of Montréal (correct)

The formation of the Iroquois Confederacy

The commencement of the Mourning Wars

Which figure is often credited with the negotiation of the Great Peace of Montréal but is contested by some historians?

Louis-Hector de Callière Signup and view all the answers

What did the presence of adoptees within Iroquoia contribute to?

Greater freedom of movement for Iroquois nations Signup and view all the answers

What was the role of the Plains Cree, Assiniboine, and Saulteaux in the fur trade?

They acted as middlemen, suppliers, labourers, and consumers. Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'nêhiyaw-pwat' refer to?

A self-ascription term used by the Cree. Signup and view all the answers

What was the main purpose of the Red River Resistance?

To contest territorial acquisition and protect rights. Signup and view all the answers

What was one of the promises made in the Manitoba Act?

Guaranteed 1.4 million acres of land for the Métis. Signup and view all the answers

How did the Iron Alliance evolve over time?

It expanded to include various bands and groups. Signup and view all the answers

What initial steps did the Métis take during the Red River Resistance?

They sent representatives to engage in negotiations with Canada. Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant aspect of the negotiations initiated by the Métis?

They sought support from both Indigenous and non-Indigenous communities. Signup and view all the answers

What was lacking for the leaders of the Red River Resistance in the Manitoba Act?

Amnesty Signup and view all the answers

What is a key reason for the rarity of older archaeological sites along the Pacific coasts?

Subsidence earthquakes and tsunamis Signup and view all the answers

What agricultural innovation is highlighted as essential among Indigenous farmers in the Americas?

The three-sisters method Signup and view all the answers

Which confederacy may have originated around 1142 CE in the eastern Woodlands?

Iroquois Confederacy Signup and view all the answers

What characterized decision-making in the Iroquoian longhouse communities?

Decisions required consensus of all members Signup and view all the answers

What impact did the arrival of the Tuscarora People have on the Haudenosaunee Confederacy?

They joined the confederacy Signup and view all the answers

What significant factor influenced agricultural practices among Indigenous peoples prior to contact with Europeans?

Limited domestic animals Signup and view all the answers

The Haudenosaunee Confederacy was characterized by what aspect of personal relations?

Toleration of independent action Signup and view all the answers

What was a key factor in the shifting populations among the Anishinaabe in the post-1100 period?

Conflicts and alliances being formed Signup and view all the answers

What event sparked a desire for recognition and respect for Métis self-determination?

The Battle of Seven Oaks Signup and view all the answers

Which year did the Pemmican Wars take place?

1812-1821 Signup and view all the answers

Who led the Métis during the Battle of Seven Oaks?

Cuthbert Grant Signup and view all the answers

What was the outcome of the Battle of Seven Oaks regarding fatalities?

1 Métis dead and 21 HBC dead Signup and view all the answers

What was the primary role of First Nations women in the cultural development of the Métis?

They facilitated kinship links and acculturation Signup and view all the answers

What was one major consequence of the Pemmican Proclamation of 1814?

It was interpreted as an act of war by the NWC and Métis Signup and view all the answers

How did acculturation affect the ability of the French freemen to form their own bands?

Demonstration of sufficient acculturation was necessary for survival Signup and view all the answers

What issue is highlighted regarding the portrayal of Métis participation in the fur trade?

First Nations involvement has been overlooked Signup and view all the answers

What was the immediate consequence of the War Chief's actions at Frog Lake?

The government pursued Big Bear and his people. Signup and view all the answers

What aspect of the Indian Act of 1876 had the most significant impact on Status First Nations?

It restricted the political structures and land rights of First Nations. Signup and view all the answers

What was a significant issue related to Scrip for the Métis?

Scrip coupons frequently ended up with white land speculators. Signup and view all the answers

What was a key problem associated with the Scrip system?

It was prone to fraud and sharp dealings. Signup and view all the answers

Why did Big Bear ultimately surrender to government forces?

To prevent hardship for women and children. Signup and view all the answers

How does the Scrip system differ across the prairies?

It was considered under different Acts and negotiations. Signup and view all the answers

What misconception might arise regarding the relationship between a Chief and a War Chief?

There is often confusion about their roles. Signup and view all the answers

What was a central criticism of the Indian Act since its implementation?

It invaded the daily lives and cultures of Status Indians. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary objective of L’Union nationale métisse St.Joseph du Manitoba?

Defence of Métis rights and promotion of Michif language Signup and view all the answers

In what year did L’Union nationale métisse St.Joseph du Manitoba get founded?

1887 Signup and view all the answers

Which statement best describes James Patrick Brady's background?

He had a privileged background with a notable family history. Signup and view all the answers

What was Malcolm Norris's role during the late 1920s and early 1930s?

He helped organize the Métis Association of Alberta. Signup and view all the answers

What significant event occurred on June 7, 1967, involving James Patrick Brady?

He disappeared during a prospecting trip. Signup and view all the answers

How did the Ewing Commission in 1934 aim to shift the narrative regarding the Métis people?

By highlighting the poverty of the Métis community. Signup and view all the answers

Which occupation did James Patrick Brady not hold during his lifetime?

Political leader Signup and view all the answers

What year was Malcolm Norris born?

1900 Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Positionality

Articulating positionality involves understanding one's familial history, where one's knowledge originates, and how lived experiences shape perspectives in life, research, and teaching.
Positionality considers intersectional identity groups, such as race, socioeconomic class, ability, religion, gender, and sexual orientation, that represent varying levels of power and privilege.

Oral Stories & Histories

The concept of "history" is dynamic and varies across cultures. Mythic, heroic, or civic narratives serve specific purposes and audiences.
Indigenous oral traditions distinguish between factual histories ("syuth") and fables/moral tales ("sxwi'em'").

The Power of Oral History

Oral accounts have been accepted as evidence in legal cases, such as the Delgamuukw v. British Columbia case.
Inuit oral testimony was crucial in the discovery of the Franklin Expedition's wrecked ships.

The Ontological/Epistemological Divide

Euro-Western frameworks often exist in abstract; their application involves an ontological translation (into praxis).
Indigenous frameworks do not differentiate between theory and practice but instead see them as extensions of cosmological frameworks.

What is a Creation Story? / What are Foundational Myths?

Creation stories explain the origin of the world and a people's origins and ways of being.
They can express worldviews, ways of seeing and knowing, and might refer to a larger cosmology.
Foundational myths, while similar to creation stories, often focus more specifically on national mythologies and political claims, though not necessarily historical or fictional accounts.

Beringia Land Bridge Theory

The 1960s and '70s saw proposed migration models tracing an ice-free corridor east of the Rockies.
The theory has been challenged by the limited evidence of sufficient resources for substantial southbound human populations sustaining the corridor.
A study of bison populations suggested that northern and southern herds intermingled, suggesting a possible path along the southern herds northward, rather than a specific ice-free corridor.

Key Points from Erlandson et al.

A history of seafaring in the Pacific dates back at least 50,000 years.
Kelp forests provided rich nutrition for early peoples.
Limited coastal archeological sites might be due to subsidence earthquakes and tsunamis.
Possible coastal migration is plausible, but not yet definitively proven.

Before "Contact" with Europeans

Complex agricultural societies first arose in Central America and Coastal Peru.
Indigenous agriculture in the Americas coincided with agricultural innovations elsewhere, in China, the Middle East, and the Nile Valley.
The "three sisters" (corn, beans, and squash) are an example of Indigenous agricultural ingenuity.

First Nations History, Diplomacy, Democracy

Woodlands (east): Haudenosaunee Confederacy, possibly established as early as 1142 CE.
Iroquoian longhouses facilitated tightly-knit communities and collective decision-making.
Woodlands (east): Anishinaabe, Three Council Fires represented coalitions of Indigenous peoples.
Far North: Thule/Inuit expansion from Alaska to Labrador, Hudson Bay Drainage, Plains Diplomacy, and Northwest Coast.

What is a Treaty?

A treaty is a contract between two or more states (or groups) regarding peace, alliance, commerce, or other international relations.

Indigenous Treaty Making

Treaty processes were grounded in Indigenous worldviews, languages, and knowledge systems.
Justice, peace, respect, reciprocity, and accountability governed the process.
Indigenous peoples viewed treaties as relationships and agreements, emphasizing renewal and responsibilities.

Treaty as Relationship – Nishnaabeg Perspective

Examples of treaty-making include treaties with other-than-human beings (fish, animals), other Indigenous nations, and specific agreements with nations like the Dakota.

Grounded Normativity

Worldview and way of being are shaped by contexts, including responsibilities and obligations of specific places.

Nêhiyaw Pwât (also known as Iron Alliance)

It was an alliance between Nêhiyaw and Nakoda/Assiniboine peoples, expanding to include Métis and Saulteaux through the late 18th and early 19th centuries.
Kinship relations underpinned this alliance.

Kinship, Reciprocal Obligations, and Treaty Making

When dealing with outside groups, the Iron Alliance operated within existing cultural protocols.
Before agreements, outsiders were expected to take on the role of kinship and responsibilities of reciprocity.

"Proto-contact" / Contact / Post-Contact

Contact events varied across North America, with some Indigenous groups encountering Europeans centuries before others.
Different groups had differing degrees of familiarity with Europeans due to these earlier exchanges.

The Columbian Exchange

The exchange included diseases, ideas, food crops, and populations across the Old and New World.
This exchange had transformative impacts on the world.

Indigenous Trade Networks

Indigenous transportation networks were sophisticated and developed well before the arrival of Europeans.
These networks facilitated extensive trade and exchange of goods across vast distances.
Trade languages like Chinook emerged as a result of these exchanges.

Indigenous Trade

Barter was the dominant trading method.
Indigenous groups had sophisticated methods of processing, storing, and transporting goods.

Mandan Corn

The Mandan people demonstrated significant agricultural practices, cultivating corn with abundance in the area.
The abundance resulted in trade for corn from other tribes and communities.

Invasive Species

Invasive species, like the Norway Rat, disrupted these agricultural systems by devastating corn caches and disrupting settlements.

Indigenous/Non-Indigenous Trade

French expeditions and trade occurred in the Northeast, though Indigenous peoples' participation was crucial.
Initially, European presence was low but grew eventually.
Relationships between Indigenous and European peoples were complex and conflictual.

Belshaw et al. Chapter 1: The Great Confederacies

The Haudenosaunee society was more agrarian than the Anishinaabe.
The St. Lawrence and Wendat villages formed a regional trade hub for food and goods.
The Wendat Confederacy represented five Iroquoian-speaking communities.

Rather... Dispersal, not Destruction

The significance of Wendat dispersal rather than destruction is emphasized to highlight ongoing Indigenous presence.

Settler Colonialism

Settler colonialism involves deliberate physical occupation of land and resources to assert ownership.
This action disrupts and replaces existing social structures and practices.
Settler colonialism's underlying motivation is territorial access, not race or other factors.

Civilization/Savagery Binary

A "super-myth" that justified the marginalization of Indigenous peoples in the colonial enterprise.
This myth placed Indigenous peoples on the periphery of mainstream society.

Defining Colonialism - 3 General Types

Three types of European colonialism exist: resource extraction, wealthy-exploration, and establishment of plantations.
Type 3 of European colonialism is dependent on Indigenous labor.

Wabanaki Resistance

The Wabanaki are a confederacy of Algonquian-speaking peoples in northeastern North America.
This confederacy encompasses the Abenaki, Mi'kmaq, Wolastoqiyik, Passamaquoddy, and Penobscot peoples.

The Mourning Wars/The Beaver Wars

The Mourning Wars/Beaver Wars were a series of conflicts between the Haudenosaunee and other Indigenous groups due to competition over fur trade resources and territorial control.
Wars involved strategic goals, including population replacement, economic profit and access to resources such as beaver.

Mourning/Beaver Wars – 17th Century

The strategy for adopting captives reflected Iroquois cultural traditions.
Iroquois offensive campaigns reached considerable distances aiming to take control of resources.
They interacted with colonial powers like the French and created ties with colonial traders.

The Great Peace of Montreal – 1701

Indigenous nations sent numerous delegates to Montreal to negotiate a wider regional peace agreement.
The peace agreement involved numerous Indigenous peoples and the French Governor.

The Seven Years' War

A global conflict between European powers.
Indigenous nations aligned with either the French or British forces due to pre-existing alliances and factors such as location and trade routes.

The Royal Proclamation of 1763

The Royal Proclamation addressed land-claim issues of Indigenous peoples and British claims following the Seven Years' War.
Established the Crown-First Nation relationship, treaty-making processes, and Indigenous rights.

Treaty of Niagara – 1764

A significant agreement attended by Indigenous chiefs and representing several nations.
An agreement that aimed for coexistence and shared governance instead of subjugation.

Hudson's Bay Company

The Hudson's Bay Company (HBC) received a royal charter in 1670.
The charter granted exclusive trading rights in furs.
Political authority over lands and people was included in the charter scope.

North-West Company

The North West Company (NWC) lacked a formal charter but had a strong organizational structure based on family and personal ties.
They expanded trade routes inland in the 1760s and were dependent on Indigenous networks and knowledge.

Fur Trade

The fur trade, from the 1600s-1880s, significantly impacted the Indigenous and settler populations.
Beaver and other valuable furs led to near-extinction of the species.
Buffalo hunting significantly reduced the buffalo population, impacting Indigenous lifestyles and ecosystems.

Key Terms for Today

Ethnogenesis: The creation and development of an ethnic group.
Peoplehood: How people conceptualize themselves as groups.
Nationhood: A political project where groups establish common goals and desires for self-determination.

Takeaways re: Fur Trade in the Late 18th Century

By the late 1700s, hundreds of non-Indigenous and Indigenous families spread across Rupert's Land creating complex kinship networks.
These kinship connections are evidence of extensive intermarriage/alliances, and the creation of multi-generational Métis families, and communities.

The Importance of Women in the Fur Trade

Indigenous women were crucial participants in the fur trade.
Key roles involved negotiations and interpretations.

What is Metis Peoplehood?

Kinship, relatedness, mobility, and geography are central tenets of Métis peoplehood.
Kinship encompasses connections with other Métis, non-Métis, and the broader world around them.

The Métis Nation; Key Moments of Nationalist Expression/Assertion

Key events demonstrated Métis expressions of self-governance, such as the Red River Core, Colony, and pivotal battles.
Indigenous resistance and political struggles were part of the creation of Métis Nationhood and its assertion.

The Pemmican Wars (1812-21)

The Pemmican Wars were a conflict triggered by the disruption of provisioning routes, food insecurities and violence between the North West Company (NWC) and the Hudson's Bay company (HBC), that spurred Métis nationalism. They were triggered the Pemmican Proclamation that was intended to stop the supplying of food to the North West Company.

The Battle of Seven Oaks

June 19, 1816, a clash between the Métis and the HBC employees/Selkirk Settlers occurred.
The clash resulted in deaths on both the HBC and Métis sides.

Significance of First Nations Women in the Emergence of the Métis

The role of Indigenous women was significant in the acculturation process of the French free men (and creating links for Métis communities).
Indigenous women facilitated the survival of Métis relationships, bands, and societies.

Indigenous Fur Trade

Métis were unique in their participation in Indigenous societies and the fur trade.
Métis participated in different roles such as middlemen, suppliers, laborers, and consumers.

Nêhiyaw Pwât Terminology

Nêhiyaw Pwât is a self-ascription term, denoting an alliance or political/military organization between Indigenous peoples like the Cree and Assiniboine, and incorporating other groups through kinship.

The Red River Resistance (1869-70)

The Red River Resistance was a reaction to Canada's unilateral acquisition of the territory.
Métis leaders negotiated with both Indigenous and non-Indigenous groups, seeking to preserve their rights and protect their territory.

The Manitoba Act: Promises Made

The passage of the Manitoba Act, which granted Manitoba as a province, also included promises regarding land and other rights.
However, some of those promises were not fulfilled.

The Frog Lake Incident (1885)

The Frog Lake Incident was an act of Indigenous resistance where Cree peoples' rights and lives were threatened.

The Indian Act – 1876

The Indian Act was enacted in 1876, heavily impacting Status Indigenous peoples' lives, including their land rights, political structures, cultural practices, and resources.

Scrip

Scrip was a form of compensation (often in the form of vouchers) given to Indigenous peoples in exchange for land.
Its processes, intended to settle land claims and obligations, were convoluted, resulting in issues, widespread fraud, and dispossession for the Métis.

Amendments to the Manitoba Act

The Manitoba Act underwent several amendments; people's eligibility for allocations decreased; heads of households were barred and later reinstated.
The Act established significant differences in the rights and access of different groups involved.

Scrip in Manitoba

The practice of issuing scrip in Manitoba caused disputes because of lack of legal rights and authorization; widespread discrimination affected land ownership.

Land vs. Money Scrip

This graph highlights the different amounts given, which caused problems between Indigenous and settlers, and often resulted in dispossession of land claims.

Scrip in the North-West

The different land processes caused inequality in the region, based on various promises and broken agreements.

The Trial of Louis Riel

Louis Riel was a leader of the Métis resistance in the North West who was tried and executed for high treason, despite some legal discrepancies.
The trial further highlighted the systemic injustices faced by Indigenous peoples.

Road Allowance Communities

Road allowances were strips of land used to build roads.
Métis communities settled on these lands, but often faced disparities and lack of resources for basic necessities.

Métis and Inuit Experiences

Métis and Inuit children experienced residential school policies differently, highlighting the lack of recognition of their unique needs.

After the War – Discrimination

Indigenous contributions were frequently minimized.
Indigenous veterans faced significant barriers to accessing support during the post-war period; inequalities persisted regarding access to resources and opportunities.

The Settlement of Ste. Madeleine – 1900s

Ste. Madeleine offered Métis a self-sufficient lifestyle, initially in the community, and then across Saskatchewan.
Their experience demonstrates the conflicts between Métis needs and the settlement plans imposed upon them.

L'Union nationale métisse St. Joseph du Manitoba

This group of Métis sought to defend their rights and preserve Indigenous culture in Manitoba.

James Patrick Brady and Malcolm Norris

These individuals represented Métis activists and their work in defending Métis rights. The issues they encountered and the battles they fought highlight the lasting effects of colonialism.

Ewing Commission – 1934 – Shifting the Narrative

The Ewing Commission provided an opportunity for the Métis to articulate their grievances and struggles.
The narrative shift demonstrated the systematic injustices present against the Métis.

AB Métis Settlements Established in 1938

The Alberta Métis Settlements Act of 1938 aimed to provide land and support to Métis.
However, these settlements encountered problems and challenges.

Broader Contexts – Late 1920s & 1930s

The Great Depression and Dust Bowl significantly impacted the lives of various communities and particularly western Canadian settlers.
The severe drought created hardship that intersected with the broader political and economic realities of the time, influencing the policies enacted concerning Indigenous peoples.

The Dust Bowl

Severe drought in the 1930s resulted in massive dust storms and soil erosion in prairies (Canada & U.S.).
The destruction significantly impacted agricultural practices of Métis and other agricultural based societies.

The Burning of Ste. Madeleine – 1935-1938

The relocation of Ste. Madeleine was poorly planned and lacked adequate resources.
Forced displacement and destruction of homes, schools, and churches resulted.
The event demonstrates forceful removal of Indigenous lands and cultural disruption.

Studying That Suits You

Use AI to generate personalized quizzes and flashcards to suit your learning preferences.

Description

This quiz explores the historical interactions between Indigenous nations, particularly focusing on the Iroquois and their diplomatic relations. Participants will engage with significant events such as the Great Peace of Montréal and the Red River Resistance, alongside the roles of various tribes in the fur trade. Test your knowledge of these critical aspects of Indigenous history in North America.