Indian History: Early Modern Period

Land Tenure in India: An Introduction

• During the early modern period, taxing agricultural produce was easier for Indian states compared to taxing profit, trade or immoveable property.
• Agricultural output was relatively predictable and exchangeable.
• Identifying producers and land controllers was easier, and they were less mobile than wealth creators like traders.

Pre-British Land Revenue Systems

• In the 16th and 17th centuries, Mughals collected land revenue through non-hereditary, transferable state officials.
• Akbar's Mansabdari system utilized officials, called mansabdars, for revenue collection.
• After the decline of Mughal power, mansabdars transformed into hereditary landlords and local chiefs.

Three Major Land Revenue systems

• Landlord Based System (Zamindari or Malguzari).
• Individual Cultivator Based System (Raiyatwari).
• Village Based System (Mahalwari).

Zamindari System: Landlord Areas

• The landlord was responsible to pay the revenue to the British.
• Revenue was set permanently.
• The landlord collected revenue from peasants under his jurisdiction.
• The landlords could fix revenue for the peasants which gave them power over the peasants.
• Landlords could dispossess any peasant not paying their revenue.

The Zamindari System

• Landlords had property rights on the land.
• Zamindari found in Bengal, Bihar, Orissa, the Central Provinces (modern Madhya Pradesh), and parts of Madras Presidency (modern Tamil Nadu and Andhra Pradesh).

Ryotwari/Raiyatwari System

• Revenue settlement was made directly with the cultivator called the raiyat.
• Cadastral surveys were conducted to detail land rights and preparing land legal titles.
• The revenue commitment was not fixed.
• Revenue commitment was calculated as the money value share of the estimated average annual output.
• This system was established in most areas of Madras and Bombay.

Mahalwari System

• Village bodies which jointly owned the village, were accountable for paying for the land revenue.
• Village bodies could manage varying villages, parts of or several entire villages.
• The bodies composition often varied according to location.
• In some areas it was a single person or family making up for the village body(similar to the landlord system).
• In other areas, a village body was a large group, each member responsible for paying a fixed share of revenue.

Benefits of the Raiyatwari System

• Sir Thomas Munro argued settling revenue with an individual cultivator was better in Madras.
• It was thought it would raise agricultural productivity since the cultivator would not be subject to arbitrary revenue demands from the landlord.
• The government would be assured of its revenue, cultivators had minimal means to politically resist paying the revenue.

Benefits of the Zamindari System

• The Madras Board of Revenue argued that arguments proposed by Munro to put forth opposing points of view.
• Large landlords had the ability to invest more and would ensure higher agricultural productivity.
• Cultivators would be protected by the landlord who would provide insurance to small cultivators.
• The landlords were wealthy and would often make up for any shortfall of revenue.

Choice of the Land Revenue System

• Two main considerations determined which land revenue system was used.
• The ability to ensure steady income for the government. Ability to balance their own political power with other important political powers.

Other Factors Determining Land Revenue

• Influence of Individual Administrators.
• Political Events.
• Date of Conquest.
• Presence of a landlord class before the arrival of the British.

Influence of Administrators

• Holt Mackenzie, the Secretary of the Board of Revenue, wrote a famous Minute claiming every village had bodies ownership over the land laying the basis for village level settlements.

Political Events

• Awadh was initially subject to a village system after being annexed by the British in 1856.
• During the Revolt of 1857, large landlords stopped the resulting unrest so British landlords were essential to maintaining power.
• Policy reversed to return landlords taken away due to the village system with their land in return.

Date of Conquest

• Areas with landlord systems required less administration from theBritish
• Areas seized early in British rule were likely to have landlord revenue systems.
• Increasing popularity of deciding land revenue was based on British economists ideas.
• Areas seized later in British rule, were more likely to be non-landlord systems.
• By the time Berar was put under an individual system, Bombay had a similar system.

Presence of Landlord Class

• Markers determine who among rich cultivators can invest to increase productivity.
• Cultivators on another person's land would be less likely to invest in it.

Tradition and Modernity: Seven Fallacies

• Developing societies are static societies.
• Traditional culture is a consistent body of norms and values.
• Traditional society is a homogenous social structure.
• Old traditions are displaced by new changes.
• Traditional and modern forms are always in conflict.
• Tradition and modernity are mutually exclusive systems. Modernizing processes weaken traditions.

Misconception and Fallacy Defined

• Misconception: a wrong or inaccurate idea.
• Fallacy: a false or mistaken idea.

Fallacy 1: Developing Societies

• "Traditional society" is often itself a product of change
• Foreign conquers and growth of movements have affected ways of life for centuries.

Traditional Society Change

• Sanskritization represents changing cultures.
• Social Movements represent change.
• The Bengal Sati Regulation act banned the practice of Sati.

Fallacy 2: Traditional Culture

• Differences between "popular" and religions shows inconsistency in traditional culture.
• Variety permits existing alternative behaviours.

Fallacy 3:Traditional Society Homogeneity

• Homogeneous means similar.
• Hindu Structure has been considered anti-economic.
• There are measures for specific groups to grow economically.

Fallacy 4: Old Traditions Displaced

• The old is not necessarily replaced by the new.
• Both magic and medicine co-exist.

Sarpagandha/Sarpasil

• A medicine used in both modern medicine and Indian Ayurveda.
• Sarpagandha is the drug identified to treat insanity.

Fallacy 5:Tradition/Modern Form Conflict

• Simon Ottenberg’s study of the tribes of West Africa found they accepted British Culture.
• The Masai in East Africa were a contrary case.

Fallacy 6:Mutually Exclusive Systems

• Cultures will interact to maintain their beliefs.
• Parents represent tradition.
• Children represent modern. Both can react, although in a different matter.

Fallacy Mutually Exclusive

• Division of labor is not balanced.
• Traditions influence economic growth of economic prosperity/modernity. Caste Mobility ensures economic life improved by means of the development of credit facilities.
• Traditional cultures are neither an impediment of industry.

Fallacy 7: Modernization Weakening

• M. N. Srinivas said higher castes “westernizing” / Modernizing their life styles.
• Lower Castes improving status by Sanskritization. Threat of modern is tackled by becoming strict to religious beliefs.

Tradition Has Changed to Survive

• Ahimsa is still a relevant modern concept that is borrowed by Gandhi. He learned it not only the Sermon of the Mount but also from Bhatt's poems.

Bhatt/Gandhi Connection To Modern

• Bhat was medieval.
• Gandhi took inspiration for the Sermon. Gandhi's line was, beauty is doing good against evil."

Conclusion

• The point of studying traditional/modern aspects.
• Its to understand connection between both, and not critique.

Module 1: Colonial Governance

• This section aims to examine the structure of governance established by Warren Hastings, Charles Cornwallis and Lord Wellesley; along with the administrative, military, economic and judicial changes they brought.

Changes in Governance

• 18th century onwards, European states showcased their power through gradual expansion "officializing" procedures.

Rulers of India

• East India Company agents wanted to only trade in India They were not interested in governance.
• British government’s Regulating Act created the post of Governor General of Bengal.
• Regulating acts also imposed upon its agents the obligation to rule India.

Warren Hastings

• Appointed as first Governor-General of Bengal.
• Regulation Act of 1773 made this change.

Governance Before British

• The rule of Nawabs of Bengal.
• The Mughal Empire.
• Ancient Indian rulers such as the Guptas

Forms of British government

• The British saw their system of government was inappropriate to a captured land.
• This led to the enduring cultural differences between India and Britain.

Cultural Difference

• Hastings’s plan of 1772, involved adopting regulations while adhering to ancient uses.

Judicial Changes

• Commitment to civilization was to create laws across India for greater effect.
• According to Hastings, legal texts corrupted over time, and needed to be restored to their original form by trained locals.
• The British could now depend on Indian legal scholars trained Arabic+Sanskrit.
• Fundamental difference now between Hindus+Muslims to solidify their identities.

Translation Process

• 1776, Hastings created Sanskrit scholars panel to compile Code of Gentoo Laws.

Process Of Editing of A Code Of Gentoo Laws

• Pandits picked each sentence from original Sanskrit sources/legal decisions.
• Since no Englishmen at the time knew the language, passages were re-translated from Persian and then English by N. B. Halhed

Indian Legal System

• Indian Sanskrit texts describe the Sanskrit legal system.

Judicial System Problems

• Laws often differed across region and caste.
• Brahmanical texts = Indian Legal System.
• Legal procedure further altered by English case law introduction.
• Suits were brought before judge for traditional mediation and consensus.

Executive Changes: The Collector

• During Hastings’s time, revenue collection was by Indian officials.
• Cornwallis felt this caused corruption.
• The Collector now important role in collection and colonial governance.
• Collector of Tax+Magistrate, controlled the court+police.
• The policy of racial exclusion then began in India.

Collector Education

• Education often involved the creation of formal languages, colleges, and teaching with foreign culture.

Colonial Indian Civil Service

• By 1793, all civil appointments and level of pay had to be held by European British origin.

Military Reforms

• 1. Recruits become more European and a military base needed as more soldiers needed.
• 2. Clive increased Indian Soldiers' recruit (sepoys) to fight for company.

Sepoy Recruitment Policy

• Hastings ensured recruiting happened only via high caste HIndu families.
• Caste and religious sensitivities were in general accommodated.
• Common messing was ignored+overseas service not needed.

Mastering Indian History Culture

• Indians also needed to collect details and historical culture.
• The Asiatic Society of Bengal dedicated themselves under William Jones to learn about India's religious texts

Sir William Jones

• Central to discovering ‘Aryan linguistic ties’ that connects India with Britain itself.
• Close relationship between Greek, Latin and Sankrit was established.
• Great ancient period based on Aryan Indo-European ancient Asia languages,

Measuring Colonial India

• Systematic Survey of India can be dated to 1765.
• Robert Clive gave the task to James Rennell, to see territories for new Bengal.

Survey

• Launched upon getting new territory.

1. Description for geology.
2. Description of zoology.
3. Description of botany.
4. Description of economy.

Colonel Colin Mackenzie

• He was accompanied by three of the most important figures of the survey from India.
• Background statue known as Gomatesvara at Karkala.

Settlements

• Lord Wellesley began an aggressive conquest policy by using Gov General 1798/1905.
• For Britain, Tipu was of "Oriental despot".

Lord Clive, Lord Wellesley

• These were alliances made connecting East Indian princes and companies.
• The use is to protect land and bring troops within friendlier sites too. The royal state was also protected against enemies.
• Royal agreed to met troop costs and accepted a British resident on court.

Subsidiary Alliance, Indirect Rule

• States:
• 1: Did not allow a Independent force.
• 2: There were restrictions for diplomatic relations.
• 3: British resident was posted at city capital.
• 4: They had alliances of intervention.

Economy Before British

Before Rights were shared with the farmer, zamindar, and government.

• Zamindar had no power over revenue and rent.

Permanent / Ryotwari System

Permanent Settlement.

• Introduced by Cornwallis.
• Farmers now tenants.
• Zaminadar’s estate sold IF default in payment.
• Led to lack in improve to agriculture.
• Zaminadar’s were essential. 

Ryotwari system.

• Introduced by Munro.
• Land rights given to Ryot.
• Unsuccessful.
• British Impoverishing people aim to get revunue.

Orientalist 6 Class Take A ways

Administrative and justice improved+ economic military power.

• Introducing: collector + and + local resident to society.
• Introduced new land rules such as permanent +Alliance. + base to colonial and knowledge.

Missionaries' Point of View

• Practices:
• a. Sati.
• b. Pardah.
• c. Sale of Slavery.

William Word Take

• Human attempt: attempt to hold, and keep the system.
• With: System operated in the shoe-render.
• And sank in ignorant superiority: Khutriyus no longer.

Cause Of Degradation Of Hindus

• Grant:
• 1 Cast Sys.
• 2: sys.
• 3- Control society.

Solution Of Culture By Grant

• Culture maintained/religious.
• Improvement of India for Hinduism
• Indian to go to Christianity. Conversion to Missionaries was helpful.
• Missionaries would aid in the process.

Positive impact missionaries

• Helped in understanding Indian tongues + Sati eliminated+ Translation.

Connection Between Missionaries, Orientalists

• Shared both by agreeing practice and underlining for India
• Accepted the Varnas
• Could correlate functions or sections for texts.

Q: How did the view change

• Answer: Orientalists admired how things looked in texts. As to religious/civilization, there’s decline and corruption.

Who Believed IN A AGE

• Orientalists

Official India

• British to collect India to govern well for India Society structure.
• Also a need to understand Indian and understand the social.

H.T. Cole B

• 1. Sanskrit, Scholars.
• 2. He administrative Sanskrit and translated D Laws.
• 3. translated Digest Of Laws.
• 4.Wrote Sanskrit residence,

Francis BC

•  1 Number of houses classified by general types of people.
• 2. health statistics
• 3 descriptions of education
• 4. Land Tenure
• 5: customs

Class Outcome Take A Way

• India culture+ society a certain aim to drive the society.
• The “Observations+knowledge”
• This is the System aspects +culture too.

Indian History time Frame

• Ancient India: earlist times pre times before 600.
• AD the empire and decline of decline is at 700 with 8th century.
• Era, AD is also Mughal Empire.
• India After: mid 18 to mid 1947 to colonial too.

6 Main Early Features

• A: How to define India.
• B:What qualities this?
• C:The early way of that?

Passage Way

•  Era of 1400s

Sea Passage

• China Gulf.
• Arabic: Indian.
• Europe Mediterranean.

World

• Expedition, oceans and ocean areas.
• But the inward

The Age Of Beginning

• Beginning exploration.

Euope Passage

• Outsea: advantage important societies
• Succes Design/constructions and techniques

What are Important routes

• Commercial, and Military Purposes:diplomats

Rise Of True World

• Commerce connected into every area.
• Cost of carrying lowered, good to see.

Stable. Monetary sys

• Trade was facilitated due to regional monetary systems based on comparable money system based on gold, silver. And they

• All shipment prevented

• Antwerp, 1580 / 1700s

• World Amsterdam

• Dutch. : with power resources and politico companies.

Sea/Market

• Capital controls shipments
• Higher at world sources. Packaging and profitable

Sea Chart

• Chart that displays shipping and routes in the world during a different era.

Commodore

•  Producers. India.
• Trade in the southern and the spice route too.

Venezuela commodities

• Traders sold Diamonds in South India and exported them to Europe.

Slavery

• It could be seen in several ways: slavery for workers. And cutting them.  

Questions about Halhead's translation, demographic trends (1500-1800), and agricultural practices. Mughal Empire, land revenue systems (Zamindari, Ryotwari), and the impact of New World crops are also covered.