Overall Hubs 1406 Quiz 12 weeks

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Questions and Answers

What is a primary effect of histamine release during tissue damage?

Inhibition of macrophage activity

Decreased blood flow to the area

Increased capillary wall permeability (correct)

Reduced temperature in the body

Which of the following cytokines is responsible for inducing a fever?

Interferon-gamma

Interleukin-2

Tumor necrosis factor-alpha

Interleukin-1 (correct)

Which white blood cells are involved in the humoral immunity response?

B cells and helper T cells (correct)

Natural killer cells and neutrophils

Cytotoxic T cells and macrophages

Dendritic cells and mast cells

What is the main purpose of macrophages during the immune response?

To perform phagocytosis and secrete interleukins Signup and view all the answers

How do B cells differentiate when activated?

Into plasma cells and memory cells Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes innate immunity from acquired immunity?

Innate immunity is immediate and non-specific, while acquired is delayed and specific Signup and view all the answers

What role do antibodies play in the immune response?

They bind to antigens to neutralize and mark them for destruction Signup and view all the answers

How quickly do plasma cells typically produce antibodies after activation?

2000 antibodies per second for 4-5 days Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the innate immune response?

It is the same throughout an individual's lifetime. Signup and view all the answers

What is a key role of cytokines in the immune response?

They amplify and direct the immune response. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following leukocytes primarily engage in phagocytosis?

Neutrophils Signup and view all the answers

What is the correct order of steps in the mobilization of phagocytes?

Leukocytosis, margination, diapedesis, chemotaxis Signup and view all the answers

How does the adaptive immune response differ from the innate immune response?

It is slower but capable of remembering antigens. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a component of the innate immune response?

T cells Signup and view all the answers

What triggers inflammation in the innate immune response?

Stimuli that kill or injure tissue Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of natural killer (NK) cells?

To directly kill virus-infected cells and tumor cells Signup and view all the answers

What stimulates the classical pathway of complement activation?

Antibody bound to the surface of a pathogen Signup and view all the answers

Which type of T cell is responsible for activating both cytotoxic T cells and B cells?

Th cells Signup and view all the answers

Which pathway of complement activation is NOT part of acquired immunity?

Alternative pathway Signup and view all the answers

Which function is primarily associated with cytokines released by Tc cells?

Inducing apoptosis in infected cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of memory B cells in the immune response?

Storing information about specific antigens for future response Signup and view all the answers

How is the lectin pathway of complement activation triggered?

Binding of mannose-binding lectin to microbial proteins Signup and view all the answers

Which type of lymphocyte matures in the thymus?

Tc cells Signup and view all the answers

In innate immunity, which pathway is activated by direct recognition of certain microbial structures?

Alternative pathway Signup and view all the answers

What is the first step in the viral life cycle after a virus adheres to a host cell?

Penetration Signup and view all the answers

Which component of the immune system is primarily responsible for filtering lymph fluid?

Lymph nodes Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following flu virus designations indicates the type of haemagglutinin and neuraminidase proteins present?

H1N1 Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the immune system?

To defend against pathogens Signup and view all the answers

What happens during the maturation stage of the viral life cycle?

Viral components are produced and assembled Signup and view all the answers

What is a consequence of the lymphatic system's infection response?

Swollen lymph nodes Signup and view all the answers

What type of flu virus is associated with the low mortality rate outbreak in 2009?

H1N1 'Swine flu' Signup and view all the answers

Which type of fluid does the lymphatic system primarily collect and filter?

Interstitial fluid Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of neurotransmitters in signaling between neurons?

To bind to receptors on the receiving neuron Signup and view all the answers

How does myelin increase the rate of conduction along axons?

It creates a vacuum-like tunnel for swift travel of action potentials Signup and view all the answers

Which two main components comprise the Central Nervous System (CNS)?

Brain and spinal cord Signup and view all the answers

What characterizes the Peripheral Nervous System (PNS)?

It connects the CNS to the rest of the body Signup and view all the answers

In an unmyelinated axon, how is the action potential maintained?

By the rapid opening of sodium channels along the entire axon Signup and view all the answers

What role do spinal nerves play in the Peripheral Nervous System?

They emerge from different levels of the spinal cord and support different body segments Signup and view all the answers

What happens to neurotransmitters after they have completed their signaling function?

They are reabsorbed back into the sending neuron Signup and view all the answers

What distinguishes the somatic nervous system from the autonomic nervous system?

Somatic predominantly regulates skeletal muscles, while autonomic regulates internal organs Signup and view all the answers

What is a likely outcome of sustained increased stimulation of receptors by a drug?

Reduction in receptor number on the cell Signup and view all the answers

How does the presence of calcium ions affect the absorption of tetracyclines?

Decreases the absorption of tetracyclines Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when two highly protein-bound drugs are administered together?

Competition for binding sites leading to increased free concentration Signup and view all the answers

What is a potential effect of taking grapefruit juice with certain medications?

Inhibition of liver enzymes, raising drug levels Signup and view all the answers

What type of interaction affects the absorption of one drug by another?

Pharmacokinetic interaction Signup and view all the answers

What can happen if two different drugs metabolized by the same enzyme are taken simultaneously?

Decreased rate of metabolism for both drugs Signup and view all the answers

What should be avoided when taking tetracyclines to ensure proper absorption?

Foods containing magnesium Signup and view all the answers

What occurs when drugs compete for protein binding in the bloodstream?

Free concentrations of one or both drugs may rise Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of decussation in the nervous system?

It allows motor commands to control opposite sides of the body. Signup and view all the answers

How does the Circle of Willis function as a backup system for the brain's blood supply?

It maintains blood flow even if an artery is blocked. Signup and view all the answers

What is one of the main functions of cerebrospinal fluid (CSF)?

To serve as a hormone transport medium. Signup and view all the answers

What happens to blood supply in the brain when one of the internal carotid or vertebral arteries is blocked?

The Circle of Willis reroutes blood to maintain supply. Signup and view all the answers

Which statement correctly describes the flow of blood from the brain?

Major veins remove blood directly from the brain's surface. Signup and view all the answers

What does the anatomy of the anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral arteries imply regarding blood distribution in the brain?

Each artery is designated to specific brain territories. Signup and view all the answers

What is a primary role of the CSF besides providing buoyancy to the brain?

Removing metabolic waste from the brain. Signup and view all the answers

Why is it critical for blood supply to remain consistent in the brain?

The brain does not store energy reserves. Signup and view all the answers

What is absorption in the context of drug administration?

The movement of the drug into the bloodstream Signup and view all the answers

Which factor does NOT affect the absorption rate of a drug?

Patient's mood Signup and view all the answers

Which characteristic of a drug affects its distribution in the body?

Molecular size Signup and view all the answers

How does the solubility of a drug influence its absorption?

Lipid-soluble drugs diffuse quicker Signup and view all the answers

Which aspect of blood flow can significantly influence the distribution of a drug?

Blood flow to the targeted tissue Signup and view all the answers

What happens to a drug when it is altered by metabolic processes in the liver?

The drug is destroyed or transformed Signup and view all the answers

What happens to a drug that cannot cross the blood-brain barrier?

It cannot affect the central nervous system Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a factor influencing drug absorption?

Patient's social status Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Differences between Innate and Adaptive Immunity

Innate immunity is non-specific, targeting groups of microbes, while adaptive immunity is specific to particular antigens.
Innate immunity is present at birth, whereas adaptive immunity develops over time following exposure to antigens.
The response of innate immunity remains constant throughout life, while the adaptive response improves with repeated exposure.
Innate immune responses are quicker, being the first line of defense, compared to the generally slower adaptive responses.
Innate immunity does not remember antigens, while adaptive immunity has memory, leading to faster and more robust responses upon subsequent exposures.
Innate immunity primarily repels invaders and prevents colonization, whereas adaptive immunity can respond systemically and address a broader range of antigens.

Components and Characteristics of Innate Immunity

Physical Barriers: Skin, mucous membranes, and cilia act as the first line of defense.
Chemical Defenses: Include enzymes, extreme pH, high salt concentrations, and molecules like interferons, complement proteins, and lysozymes.
- Lysozyme found in tears, saliva, and mucus breaks down bacterial cell walls.
- Cytokines are released to amplify and guide the immune response.
Phagocytosis: Carried out by neutrophils, dendritic cells, eosinophils, monocytes, and macrophages.
- Leukocytosis: Release of phagocytes from bone marrow activated by cytokines.
- Margination: Phagocytes adhere to blood vessel walls in inflamed areas.
- Diapedesis: Passage of blood cells through capillary walls into tissues.
- Chemotaxis: Movement of leukocytes towards inflammatory chemicals.
Natural Killer (NK) Cells: Target and destroy infected or cancerous cells.
Inflammation: Triggered by tissue injury, mobilizes local and systemic defenses, promotes repair.

Mechanisms of Complement Activation

Classical Pathway: Activated by antibodies bound to a pathogen's surface.
Alternative Pathway: Triggered by direct recognition of microbial structures.
Lectin Pathway: Involves binding of mannose-binding lectin to mannose on microbial proteins.

Components of Adaptive Immunity

Lymphocytes:
- T Cells: Produced in bone marrow, mature in the thymus.
  - Helper T Cells (Th): Activate cytotoxic T cells and B cells.
  - Cytotoxic T Cells (Tc): Recognize infected cells and induce apoptosis.
  - Regulatory T Cells (Ts): Regulate immune responses.
  - Memory T Cells (Tm): Remember antigens for faster future responses.
- B Cells: Produced and mature in the bone marrow.
  - Differentiate into plasma cells (produce antibodies) and memory B cells (enhance future responses).
Antibodies: Glycoproteins specific to antigens, neutralizing them.

Inflammation Response

Damage or injury leads to localized redness, swelling, heat, and pain due to histamine release.
Increased permeability of capillary walls allows white blood cells to exit and reach affected tissues.
Macrophages enhance phagocytic activity and release interleukins, which communicate among white blood cells.
- Interleukin-1: Raises body temperature, enhances white blood cell activity, and promotes drowsiness.

Divisions of Adaptive Immunity

Humoral Immunity: Mediated by antibodies, involving helper T cells and B cells binding to MHC II.
Cellular Immunity: Involves cytotoxic and helper T cells binding to MHC I, with immune functions carried out by the cells themselves.

B Cell Activation and Antibody Function

T Cell-Dependent Activation: Antigen presented on MHC II activates helper T cells that then stimulate B cells to differentiate into plasma and memory cells.
Plasma cells produce antibodies specific to the activating antigen, each cell secreting up to 2000 antibodies per second.
Antibody response peaks around ten days and antibodies usually last about 4-5 days after peak levels.

Nervous System Communication

Electrical communication in neurons converts to chemical communication at the axon terminal during action potentials.
Neurotransmitters released into the synapse activate receptors on adjacent neurons, generating new action potentials.
Myelin sheaths significantly enhance action potential conduction by creating insulated pathways, allowing rapid signal transmission with fewer sodium channel openings.

Nervous System Division

Central Nervous System (CNS):
- Comprises the brain (with external grey matter made up of cell bodies and internal white matter consisting of axons) and spinal cord (with external white matter and internal grey matter).
Peripheral Nervous System (PNS):
- Includes spinal nerves (31 pairs) that connect the spinal cord to various body segments, leading into peripheral nerves.
Somatic and Autonomic:
- Somatic handles voluntary movements while the autonomic controls involuntary functions.
Sensory and Motor:
- Sensory pathways transmit information from the body to the CNS; motor pathways carry commands from the CNS to the body.

Blood Supply to the Brain

The Circle of Willis functions as a backup system, preserving blood flow to the brain if internal carotid or vertebral arteries are blocked.
Continuous blood supply is crucial for brain function, with smaller arteries ensuring even distribution.
Major veins drain blood from the brain, and cerebrospinal fluid (CSF) in the ventricles provides protection and buoyancy.

Cerebral Arteries

Anterior, middle, and posterior cerebral arteries cover distinct brain territories and supply oxygenated blood.

Drug Absorption and Distribution

Absorption involves drug movement from administration site into the bloodstream, affected by route and physiological state.
Distribution is influenced by molecular size, solubility, blood flow, and prior liver metabolism.

Drug Interactions

Absorption can be altered by other drugs; for example, tetracyclines bind to calcium and magnesium, reducing their absorption.
Distribution competition occurs for proteins; for instance, warfarin's effectiveness changes when paired with other protein-bound drugs.
Metabolism interactions arise when drugs use the same liver enzymes, potentially leading to increased toxicity, as seen with grapefruit juice inhibiting drug metabolism.

Viral Infection Process

Viral life cycle stages include adsorption, penetration, replication, assembly, maturation, and release of new viruses.

Influenza Virus Naming

Influenza viruses are categorized by H (hemagglutinins) and N (neuraminidase) spikes.
Notable strains include H1N1 (Spanish flu), H2N2 (Asian flu), H1N1 (Swine flu), and H5N1 (Bird flu), each with significant historical mortality rates.

Immune System Overview

The immune system is a complex network protecting the body from pathogens, facilitating infection recognition and initiating defenses.

Role of the Lymphatic System

Functions to collect and filter interstitial fluid (lymph), removing foreign materials through lymph nodes.
Part of the circulatory system, it transports white blood cells and swells during infections as the body responds to pathogens.

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Description

Explore the key differences between innate and adaptive immunity through this quiz. Learn about the specific and non-specific mechanisms, response times, and memory capabilities of both immune responses. This quiz is essential for understanding fundamental immunological principles.