Immune Response and Vaccination

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Questions and Answers

What is the function of the transposase in the genome?

To recognize and bind to the toxin receptor

To produce high-affinity IgG antibodies

To cut, insert, and reinsert transposons at recognition sequences (correct)

To rearrange T cell receptor gene segments

What is the characteristic of the secondary immune response?

Slower and weaker than the primary response

Produces high-affinity IgM antibodies

Faster and stronger than the primary response (correct)

Only occurs in the presence of an antigen

What is the function of RAG1 and RAG2 genes?

To produce high-affinity IgG antibodies

To regulate the lymphatic system

To recognize and bind to toxin receptors

To recombine T cell receptor gene segments (correct)

What is the characteristic of the best vaccines?

They produce high-affinity IgG antibodies Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of the first immunization with an antigen?

A slow increase in low-affinity IgM antibodies Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of transposons?

To move themselves from one location to another Signup and view all the answers

What is the difference between the primary and secondary immune responses?

The primary response is weaker, the secondary response is stronger Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of multiple immunizations (boosters)?

A rapid and intense burst of antigen-specific high-affinity IgG Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the thymus in the immune system?

To mature and select T-lymphocytes Signup and view all the answers

During affinity maturation, what process occurs to generate high-affinity IgG antibodies?

Somatic hypermutation of the Ig gene Signup and view all the answers

Where does clonal selection of B cells occur?

In the lymph node follicles Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism of action of Tetanus Toxin (TT)?

Binding to the presynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of somatic hypermutation of the Ig gene during affinity maturation?

Generation of high-affinity IgG antibodies Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the lymph nodes in the immune response?

To provide a site for B cell activation and clonal selection Signup and view all the answers

During vaccination, what is the primary mechanism by which the immune system generates protection against future infections?

Generation of memory B cells and T cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of affinity maturation in the immune response?

To generate high-affinity antibodies against specific antigens Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of MHC molecules in humans?

To present antigens to T-cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for graft rejection in tissue transplantation?

Incompatibility between the donor and recipient's MHC molecules Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of CD4 and CD8 molecules in T-cell function?

They are involved in intracellular signaling Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of an allergic reaction that can lead to anaphylactic shock?

Systemic vasodilation and increased permeability Signup and view all the answers

What is the estimated percentage of people affected by allergies?

30% Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism of immune response involved in autoimmune diseases?

Cellular immunity Signup and view all the answers

What is the implication of MHC polymorphism in autoimmune diseases?

It is strongly linked to autoimmune diseases Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of MHC molecules in humans?

To regulate cellular immunity. Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following autoimmune diseases is strongly linked to MHC polymorphism?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of CD4 and CD8 molecules in T-cell function?

To associate with the T cell receptor. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main consequence of an allergic reaction that can lead to anaphylaxis?

Systemic vasodilation Signup and view all the answers

What percentage of people are affected by allergies?

30% Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism of immune response involved in autoimmune diseases?

Cellular immunity Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for graft rejection in tissue transplantation?

MHC polymorphism Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of adaptive immunity?

Constant response to antigen Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the recognition sequences at the ends of transposons?

To facilitate the movement of transposons Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism by which somatic hypermutation of the Ig gene generates high-affinity IgG antibodies?

By introducing mutations that alter the IgG protein's affinity for antigens Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why the best vaccines are inactive variants of bacteria toxins?

They induce a rapid and intense burst of antigen-specific high affinity IgG Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of RAG1 and RAG2 genes in the rearrangement of immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor genes?

To enable the rearrangement of genes Signup and view all the answers

Where do mature T lymphocytes migrate to after maturation in the thymus?

Lymphatic vessels and lymphoid organs Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism by which Tetanus Toxin causes spastic paralysis?

By inhibiting the release of neurotransmitters from the presynaptic membrane Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of the second and third immunizations (boosters) in terms of antigen-specific IgG production?

A rapid and intense burst of antigen-specific high affinity IgG Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of transposons in the genome?

To move themselves from one location to another Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the lymph nodes in the immune response to vaccination?

To provide a site for antigen presentation and B cell activation Signup and view all the answers

What is the characteristic of the primary immune response to an antigen?

A rapid and intense burst of antigen-specific low affinity IgM Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism by which affinity maturation drives the generation of high-affinity IgG antibodies?

By selecting for B cells with high-affinity receptors through clonal selection Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the thymus in the immune system?

To mature and select immature T lymphocytes Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism of action of vaccines in generating protection against future infections?

Induction of adaptive immunity Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism by which vaccination generates protection against future infections?

By generating a pool of long-lived memory B cells that can respond to future infections Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary consequence of an immune response to Tetanus Toxin?

The production of neutralizing antibodies that protect against future infections Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of the low blood pressure in the capillaries?

To prevent capillary leakage and allow for efficient exchange of oxygen and nutrients Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the pulmonary artery in the circulation of blood?

To carry unoxygenated blood from the heart to the lungs Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the left atrium in the circulation of blood?

To pump blood from the lungs to the heart Signup and view all the answers

What is systolic pressure?

The blood pressure in the arteries when the heart pumps Signup and view all the answers

What is diastolic pressure?

The blood pressure in the arteries when the heart is at rest Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of the elastic vessel walls in the arteries?

They maintain high blood pressure in the arteries Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of high blood pressure on the arteries?

They become less elastic and rigid Signup and view all the answers

What is the implication of low blood pressure?

You don't have enough blood pumping in your veins Signup and view all the answers

What is the percentage of plasma in blood?

50% Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of albumin in blood?

To maintain colloidal osmotic pressure Signup and view all the answers

What is the process of separating blood serum proteins using an electric field?

Electrophoresis Signup and view all the answers

What is the second most abundant protein in blood?

Fibrinogen Signup and view all the answers

What is the percentage of water in plasma?

91.5% Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of coagulation in blood?

Formation of serum Signup and view all the answers

What is the process that separates blood into packed RBC, buffy coat, and plasma?

Centrifugation Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of immunoglobulins in blood?

To produce antibodies Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of the venous system in the circulation of blood?

To provide back flow to the heart due to lack of blood pressure Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following proteins is responsible for maintaining osmotic pressure in blood?

Albumin Signup and view all the answers

What is the term for the narrowing or hardening of the arteries, leading to hypertension?

Arteriosclerosis Signup and view all the answers

What is the significance of blood volume in relation to blood pressure?

It must be maintained to retain blood pressure Signup and view all the answers

Which lipoprotein is often referred to as 'bad' cholesterol?

LDL Signup and view all the answers

What is the importance of maintaining a tight pH range in blood?

It is crucial for proper bodily functions Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of centrifugation in blood analysis?

To separate blood cells from plasma Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of myeloid cells in the immune system?

To engage in innate immunity Signup and view all the answers

What is the main characteristic of Human Stem Cells (HSC)?

They are relatively rare, about 1 in 10,000 white cells. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of storing HSC in liquid nitrogen?

To use them in bone marrow transplantation in the future, if needed. Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of the CD34+ antigen on Human Stem Cells?

It is a marker used to isolate HSC from other blood cells. Signup and view all the answers

What is the location where Human Stem Cells are mostly found?

In the bone marrow. Signup and view all the answers

What is the main method used to isolate HSC from other blood cells?

Using all of the above. Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of radioablation and chemicals in treating leukemia?

To prepare the patient for bone marrow transplantation. Signup and view all the answers

What is the result of transplanting HSC into a patient with leukemia?

The HSC repopulate the bone marrow and regenerate a normal blood system. Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of the anti-CD34 antibody in treating leukemia?

It selects and concentrates HSC from blood. Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason why MHC polymorphism is associated with autoimmune diseases?

MHC is highly polymorphic and can present self-antigens to T-cells Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of CD4 and CD8 molecules in T-cell function?

They are accessory molecules associated with the T-cell receptor Signup and view all the answers

What is the consequence of an allergic reaction that can lead to anaphylaxis?

The release of chemical mediators leading to anaphylactic shock Signup and view all the answers

What is the estimated percentage of people affected by allergies?

30% of the population Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary mechanism of immune response involved in autoimmune diseases?

Cellular immunity Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary reason for graft rejection in tissue transplantation?

The presence of MHC molecules Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary function of MHC molecules in humans?

To present antigens to T-cells Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following autoimmune diseases is strongly linked to MHC polymorphism?

All of the above Signup and view all the answers

What type of cells do CD34+ HSC give rise to?

Both Myeloid and Lymphoid progenitors Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of GM-CSF in haematopoiesis?

Stimulates the production of neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, and monocytes Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of EPO in haematopoiesis?

Stimulates the production of erythrocytes Signup and view all the answers

What is the function of G-CSF in haematopoiesis?

Stimulates the production of granulocytes and matures neutrophils Signup and view all the answers

What is the composition of haemoglobin in RBCs?

96% of the RBC's dry weight Signup and view all the answers

How many lobes are present in each haemoglobin molecule?

4 lobes Signup and view all the answers

What is the role of CD34+ cells in haematopoiesis?

They are the stem cells that give rise to myeloid and lymphoid progenitors Signup and view all the answers

What is the purpose of treating patients with radiation before transplanting CD34+ cells?

To destroy the patient's current cells and make room for the transplanted cells Signup and view all the answers

Study Notes

Mechanism Behind Vaccination

Affinity maturation drives weak naive B cells to undergo rearrangement and extensive hypermutation to eventually secrete high-affinity IgG.
Clonal selection occurs in lymph node follicles, including cervical lymph nodes, thoracic duct, lymphatics of the mammary gland, thymus, axillary lymph nodes, cisterna chyli, spleen, lumbar lymph nodes, and lymphatics of the upper and lower limbs.

Affinity Maturation in B Cells

A massive repertoire of naive B cells is generated stochastically before birth, each with a unique B cell receptor.
B cells encounter antigens in the lymph nodes, and an antigen expands a small number of B cell clones with receptors that weakly bind the antigen.
Somatic hypermutation of the Ig gene results in some clones with higher antigen receptor affinity, and successive rounds of this process lead to mature B cells secreting soluble IgG.
Some B cells reside in lymph nodes as long-term memory cells.

Tetanus Case Study

Clostridum tetani is a common soil bacterium that produces Tetanus Toxin (TT), a neurotoxin that binds to the presynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction, causing spastic paralysis.

Thymus and T Lymphocytes

The thymus is a site for immature lymphocytes from the bone marrow to mature.
Ancient transposase is still present in our genome and is called RAG1 and RAG2 (recombination activation genes).
Recognition sequences are located at the ends of all Ig and TcR gene segments.

Adaptive Immunity

Adaptive immunity has memory and changes with time and persistence of antigen.
A secondary response is stronger and more rapid than the naive response, which is the basis for vaccination.

Primary and Secondary Responses to Vaccination

The first immunization with an antigen results in a rise in antigen-specific low-affinity IgM in the blood, peaking at about 2 weeks post-immunization, but then diminishing rapidly.
The second and third immunizations (boosters) generate a rapid and intense burst of antigen-specific high-affinity IgG that lasts for a month or sometimes years.

Properties of Vaccines

The best vaccines are inactive variants of bacterial toxins that rapidly produce high-affinity neutralizing IgG that binds to the toxin before it binds to its target receptor.

Transposons and Transposase

Transposons are bits of DNA that have the ability to move themselves from one location to another location.
Transposons have recognition DNA sequences at their ends.
Transposase is an enzyme that cuts, inserts, and reinserts transposons, working on the recognition sequences on the transposons.

Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system includes lymph nodes, lymphatics, thymus, and spleen.

MHC Polymorphism and Autoimmune Disease

MHC polymorphisms are strongly linked to many autoimmune diseases, including Addison's disease, type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
The MHC locus is the only polymorphic part of the entire genome, making it strongly associated with autoimmune diseases.

Cellular Immunity

Cellular immunity is regulated by MHC, a set of highly polymorphic genes coding for a group of membrane molecules called HLA in humans.
T cell receptor (TcR) is an Ig-like membrane molecule, and its gene locus is segmented and undergoes rearrangement.

Graft Rejection and Tissue Transplant

The experiment using congenic strains of mice showed that viral immunity requires both self MHC and the foreign antigen - MHC restriction.
MHC polymorphism makes tissue transplant difficult.

CD4 and CD8

CD4 and CD8 are accessory molecules associated with the T cell receptor, responsible for intracellular signaling through associated tyrosine kinases.

Allergy, Hypersensitivity, and Review

Allergy is the most common form of immune disorder, affecting 30% of people.
Hives (urticaria) is caused by the release of histamine into the tissue from mast cells in the skin.
Oedema (swelling) is caused by leakage of fluid into the spaces between cells.
Anaphylaxis and anaphylactic shock are serious consequences of allergic reactions.

Mechanism Behind Vaccination

Affinity maturation drives weak naive B cells to undergo rearrangement and extensive hypermutation to eventually secrete high-affinity IgG.
Clonal selection occurs in lymph node follicles, including cervical lymph nodes, thoracic duct, lymphatics of the mammary gland, thymus, axillary lymph nodes, cisterna chyli, spleen, lumbar lymph nodes, and lymphatics of the upper and lower limbs.

Affinity Maturation in B Cells

A massive repertoire of naive B cells is generated stochastically before birth, each with a unique B cell receptor.
B cells encounter antigens in the lymph nodes, and an antigen expands a small number of B cell clones with receptors that weakly bind the antigen.
Somatic hypermutation of the Ig gene results in some clones with higher antigen receptor affinity, and successive rounds of this process lead to mature B cells secreting soluble IgG.
Some B cells reside in lymph nodes as long-term memory cells.

Tetanus Case Study

Clostridum tetani is a common soil bacterium that produces Tetanus Toxin (TT), a neurotoxin that binds to the presynaptic membrane of the neuromuscular junction, causing spastic paralysis.

Thymus and T Lymphocytes

The thymus is a site for immature lymphocytes from the bone marrow to mature.
Ancient transposase is still present in our genome and is called RAG1 and RAG2 (recombination activation genes).
Recognition sequences are located at the ends of all Ig and TcR gene segments.

Adaptive Immunity

Adaptive immunity has memory and changes with time and persistence of antigen.
A secondary response is stronger and more rapid than the naive response, which is the basis for vaccination.

Primary and Secondary Responses to Vaccination

The first immunization with an antigen results in a rise in antigen-specific low-affinity IgM in the blood, peaking at about 2 weeks post-immunization, but then diminishing rapidly.
The second and third immunizations (boosters) generate a rapid and intense burst of antigen-specific high-affinity IgG that lasts for a month or sometimes years.

Properties of Vaccines

The best vaccines are inactive variants of bacterial toxins that rapidly produce high-affinity neutralizing IgG that binds to the toxin before it binds to its target receptor.

Transposons and Transposase

Transposons are bits of DNA that have the ability to move themselves from one location to another location.
Transposons have recognition DNA sequences at their ends.
Transposase is an enzyme that cuts, inserts, and reinserts transposons, working on the recognition sequences on the transposons.

Lymphatic System

The lymphatic system includes lymph nodes, lymphatics, thymus, and spleen.

MHC Polymorphism and Autoimmune Disease

MHC polymorphisms are strongly linked to many autoimmune diseases, including Addison's disease, type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, and ankylosing spondylitis.
The MHC locus is the only polymorphic part of the entire genome, making it strongly associated with autoimmune diseases.

Cellular Immunity

Cellular immunity is regulated by MHC, a set of highly polymorphic genes coding for a group of membrane molecules called HLA in humans.
T cell receptor (TcR) is an Ig-like membrane molecule, and its gene locus is segmented and undergoes rearrangement.

Graft Rejection and Tissue Transplant

The experiment using congenic strains of mice showed that viral immunity requires both self MHC and the foreign antigen - MHC restriction.
MHC polymorphism makes tissue transplant difficult.

CD4 and CD8

CD4 and CD8 are accessory molecules associated with the T cell receptor, responsible for intracellular signaling through associated tyrosine kinases.

Allergy, Hypersensitivity, and Review

Allergy is the most common form of immune disorder, affecting 30% of people.
Hives (urticaria) is caused by the release of histamine into the tissue from mast cells in the skin.
Oedema (swelling) is caused by leakage of fluid into the spaces between cells.
Anaphylaxis and anaphylactic shock are serious consequences of allergic reactions.

Circulation of Blood

The heart pumps blood to the lungs through the pulmonary artery, where it is oxygenated and then returns to the left atrium through the pulmonary vein.
Blood is circulated through the body via the left ventricle, which pumps blood out through the aorta and into the arterial system.
The pressure of arterial blood is high due to the elastic vessel walls containing smooth muscle, which allows the heart to pump blood efficiently.
Venous pressure is lower because veins are not elastic, and the pressure is maintained by the heart's pumping action.

Blood Composition and Function

Myeloid cells are responsible for innate immunity, while lymphoid cells participate in adaptive immune responses.
Proteins present in blood include:
- Albumin: most abundant protein, providing osmotic pressure and maintaining hypertonicity
- Hemoglobin: component of RBCs that carries oxygen
- Fibrinogen: forms blood clots, constitutes 7% of blood
- Immunoglobulins: antibodies
Lipids in blood are bound in lipoproteins: HDL, LDL, and VLDL
Other components of blood include:
- Electrolytes (salts and minerals)
- Vitamins
- Hormones
- Glucose

Regulation of Blood pH

Blood pH is tightly maintained at 7.4, with a variance of more than 0.2 resulting in severe stress, acidosis, or alkalosis.
Blood pH is effectively buffered by albumin, phosphate, bicarbonate, creatinine, and other compounds.

Centrifugation and Separation of Blood

Centrifugation separates blood into three components:
- Packed RBCs (approx. 40-45%)
- Buffy coat (approx. 10%) containing white cells
- Plasma (approx. 50%) containing dissolved substances and formed elements
Plasma contains fibrinogen, while serum is blood without fibrinogen, essentially plasma without fibrinogen.
Serum electrophoresis separates serum proteins into 5 major fractions: albumin, α1, α2, β, and γ fractions.

Blood Proteins and Their Roles

The five major proteins in blood are:
- Albumin: maintains colloidal osmotic pressure, binds and transports small molecules and hormones
- Fibrinogen: forms blood clots through the coagulation cascade
- Immunoglobulins (Ig): aka antibodies, participate in immune responses

Leukocytes and Haematopoiesis

Natural Killer cells attack infectious microbes and spontaneously arising tumour cells
Granular leukocytes: neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils
Agranular leukocytes: lymphocytes, monocytes

Haematopoiesis

Haematopoietic stem cells (HSC) are found mainly in the bone marrow
HSC is characterized by a CD34 cell surface marker antigen
HSC is relatively rare (about 1 in 10,000 white cells are CD34+)
Multipotential hematopoietic stem cells can be saved and stored in liquid nitrogen for future use
CD34+ is a surface antigen marker on HSCs
Anti-CD34 antibody can select and concentrate HSCs from blood prior to a bone marrow transplant

Leukemia Treatment

In adult patients, HSC is isolated using a monoclonal antibody with a fluorescent tag or magnetic bead that binds to the CD34+ antigen
The patient is then treated with radiation, and the isolated CD34+ cells are transplanted back into the patient

Haematopoiesis and Cell Development

CD34+ HSC gives rise to myeloid or lymphoid progenitors
Myeloid progenitors can give rise to erythrocytes, platelet-producing megakaryocytes, mast cells, or myeloblasts
Myeloblasts further differentiate into either neutrophils, basophils, eosinophils, or monocytes
Lymphoid progenitors differentiate into B or T lymphocytes
Immature T lymphocytes differentiate into CD4 or CD8

Factors that Drive Haematopoiesis

GM-CSF (granulocyte macrophage colony-stimulating factor) stimulates the production of neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils, and monocytes
EPO (erythropoietin) drives the production of erythrocytes
G-CSF (granulocyte colony stimulating factor) stimulates the production of granulocytes and matures neutrophils

Hemoglobin and Oxygen Transport

Hemoglobin is a major protein in RBCs and constitutes 96% of the RBC's dry weight
Each hemoglobin molecule contains 4 lobes, each containing a haem
Gas exchange occurs in the hemoglobin of RBCs through the binding of oxygen to the haem

MHC and Autoimmune Diseases

MHC polymorphism is strongly linked to many autoimmune diseases
Diseases associated with MHC polymorphism include: Addison's disease, type 1 diabetes, rheumatoid arthritis, multiple sclerosis, and ankylosing spondylitis

Cellular Immunity

Cellular immunity is regulated by MHC, a set of highly polymorphic genes coding for a group of membrane molecules called HLA in humans
T cell receptor (TcR) is an Ig-like membrane molecule that undergoes rearrangement
MHC restriction implies that viral immunity requires both self MHC and the foreign antigen

Allergy and Hypersensitivity

Allergy is the most common form of immune disorder, affecting 30% of people
Hives/urticaria is caused by the release of histamine into the tissue from mast cells in the skin
Oedema/swelling is caused by leakage of fluid into the spaces between cells
Anaphylaxis and anaphylactic shock are serious consequences of allergic reactions

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This quiz covers the mechanism behind vaccination, including affinity maturation, clonal selection, and the role of lymph nodes and other organs in the immune response.

Immune Response and Vaccination

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Questions and Answers

What is the function of the transposase in the genome?

What is the characteristic of the secondary immune response?

What is the function of RAG1 and RAG2 genes?

What is the characteristic of the best vaccines?

What is the result of the first immunization with an antigen?

What is the function of transposons?

What is the difference between the primary and secondary immune responses?

What is the result of multiple immunizations (boosters)?

What is the primary function of the thymus in the immune system?

During affinity maturation, what process occurs to generate high-affinity IgG antibodies?

Where does clonal selection of B cells occur?

What is the primary mechanism of action of Tetanus Toxin (TT)?

What is the result of somatic hypermutation of the Ig gene during affinity maturation?

What is the primary role of the lymph nodes in the immune response?

During vaccination, what is the primary mechanism by which the immune system generates protection against future infections?

What is the primary function of affinity maturation in the immune response?

What is the primary function of MHC molecules in humans?

What is the primary reason for graft rejection in tissue transplantation?

What is the role of CD4 and CD8 molecules in T-cell function?

What is the consequence of an allergic reaction that can lead to anaphylactic shock?

What is the estimated percentage of people affected by allergies?

What is the primary mechanism of immune response involved in autoimmune diseases?

What is the implication of MHC polymorphism in autoimmune diseases?

What is the primary function of MHC molecules in humans?

Which of the following autoimmune diseases is strongly linked to MHC polymorphism?

What is the role of CD4 and CD8 molecules in T-cell function?

What is the main consequence of an allergic reaction that can lead to anaphylaxis?

What percentage of people are affected by allergies?

What is the primary mechanism of immune response involved in autoimmune diseases?

What is the primary reason for graft rejection in tissue transplantation?

Which of the following is NOT a characteristic of adaptive immunity?

What is the function of the recognition sequences at the ends of transposons?

What is the primary mechanism by which somatic hypermutation of the Ig gene generates high-affinity IgG antibodies?

What is the primary reason why the best vaccines are inactive variants of bacteria toxins?

What is the role of RAG1 and RAG2 genes in the rearrangement of immunoglobulin and T-cell receptor genes?

Where do mature T lymphocytes migrate to after maturation in the thymus?

What is the primary mechanism by which Tetanus Toxin causes spastic paralysis?

What is the consequence of the second and third immunizations (boosters) in terms of antigen-specific IgG production?

What is the primary function of transposons in the genome?

What is the primary role of the lymph nodes in the immune response to vaccination?

What is the characteristic of the primary immune response to an antigen?

What is the primary mechanism by which affinity maturation drives the generation of high-affinity IgG antibodies?

What is the primary function of the thymus in the immune system?

What is the primary mechanism of action of vaccines in generating protection against future infections?

What is the primary mechanism by which vaccination generates protection against future infections?

What is the primary consequence of an immune response to Tetanus Toxin?

What is the purpose of the low blood pressure in the capillaries?

What is the role of the pulmonary artery in the circulation of blood?

What is the function of the left atrium in the circulation of blood?

What is systolic pressure?

What is diastolic pressure?

What is the significance of the elastic vessel walls in the arteries?

What is the effect of high blood pressure on the arteries?

What is the implication of low blood pressure?

What is the percentage of plasma in blood?

What is the function of albumin in blood?

What is the process of separating blood serum proteins using an electric field?

What is the second most abundant protein in blood?

What is the percentage of water in plasma?

What is the result of coagulation in blood?

What is the process that separates blood into packed RBC, buffy coat, and plasma?

What is the function of immunoglobulins in blood?

What is the primary function of the venous system in the circulation of blood?

Which of the following proteins is responsible for maintaining osmotic pressure in blood?

What is the term for the narrowing or hardening of the arteries, leading to hypertension?

What is the significance of blood volume in relation to blood pressure?

Which lipoprotein is often referred to as 'bad' cholesterol?

What is the importance of maintaining a tight pH range in blood?

What is the purpose of centrifugation in blood analysis?

What is the primary function of myeloid cells in the immune system?

What is the main characteristic of Human Stem Cells (HSC)?

What is the purpose of storing HSC in liquid nitrogen?

What is the function of the CD34+ antigen on Human Stem Cells?

What is the location where Human Stem Cells are mostly found?

What is the main method used to isolate HSC from other blood cells?

What is the purpose of radioablation and chemicals in treating leukemia?