Igneous and Sedimentary Rocks

Types of Rocks

• Created from molten rock (magma or lava) cooling and solidifying

Types of Igneous Rocks

• Includes intrusive (plutonic) and extrusive (volcanic)

Intrusive (Plutonic) Igneous Rocks

• Form as magma cools slowly underground
• Results in large crystals

Intrusive Rock Examples

• Granite: is light-colored, coarse-grained, and contains quartz, feldspar, and mica
• Diorite: is medium-dark, has a speckled appearance, and is coarse-grained
• Gabbro: is dark-colored, coarse-grained, and rich in iron and magnesium

Extrusive (Volcanic) Igneous Rocks

• Form where lava cools quickly on the surface
• Results in small or no crystals

Extrusive Rock Examples

• Basalt: is dark-colored, fine-grained, and found in oceanic crust
• Pumice: is light, porous, and floats on water due to trapped gas bubbles
• Obsidian: is volcanic glass, smooth, has sharp edges, and is black or dark brown
• Andesite: is gray, features medium-fine texture, and is intermediate between basalt and granite

Igneous Rock Identification Tips

• Intrusive rocks have large crystals (coarse-grained)
• Extrusive rocks cool quickly, and have small crystals or glassy textures
• Dark igneous rocks (like basalt) contain more iron and magnesium

Sedimentary Rocks

• Form by the accumulation and compaction of sediments, organic material, or precipitated minerals

Types of Sedimentary Rocks

• Includes Clastic, chemical, and organic sedimentary rocks

Clastic Sedimentary Rocks

• Made of fragments (clasts) of other rocks

Clastic Rock Examples

• Conglomerate: has large, and rounded rock fragments cemented together
• Breccia: is similar to conglomerate but is made of angular fragments
• Sandstone: is made of compacted sand grains, and has a gritty texture
• Shale: is fine-grained, made of compacted clay, and breaks into layers

Chemical Sedimentary Rocks

• Form when dissolved minerals precipitate from water

Chemical Rock Examples

• Limestone: is made of calcium carbonate, and often contains fossils
• Dolomite: is similar to limestone but contains magnesium
• Rock Salt (Halite): is formed from evaporated seawater, and tastes salty
• Gypsum: is soft, white pink, and used for plaster and drywall

Organic Sedimentary Rocks

• Form from plant and animal remains

Organic Rock Examples

• Coal is black, and formed from ancient plant material
• Chalk is soft, white limestone made from microscopic sea creatures

Sedimentary Rock Identification Tips

• Sedimentary rocks often have layers (stratification)
• Fossils are common within limestone and shale

Metamorphic Rocks

• Form when existing rocks undergo heat and pressure
• Changes the rocks' texture and mineral composition

Types of Metamorphic Rocks

• Includes foliated and non-foliated rocks

Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

• Rocks have a layered or banded appearance

Foliated Rock Examples

• Slate: is fine-grained, formed from shale, has a smooth surface, and breaks into sheets
• Schist: is medium to coarse-grained, and shiny with mica minerals
• Gneiss: is coarse-grained, and has distinct banded layers

Non-Foliated Metamorphic Rocks

• Rocks do not have visible layers and have a uniform texture

Non-Foliated Rock Examples

• Marble: is crystalline, formed from limestone, and used in sculptures
• Quartzite: is hard, made from sandstone, and scratches glass
• Anthracite Coal: is hard, shiny, and contains high-carbon

Metamorphic Rock Identification Tips

• Foliated rocks have distinct bands or layers
• Non-foliated rocks are usually crystalline and uniform
• Metamorphic rocks are harder than their parent rocks

Elements

• Hydrogen (H): is the lightest element, and found in water (H2O)
• Oxygen (O): is needed for breathing and makes up part of water
• Carbon (C): is found in all living things, coal, and pencils (graphite)
• Nitrogen (N): makes up 78% of the air that is breathed
• Helium (He): is used in balloons because it's lighter than air
• Iron (Fe): is found in steel, nails, and our blood (hemoglobin)
• Gold (Au): is a shiny, and valuable metal used in jewelry
• Silver (Ag): is used in coins, jewelry, and mirrors
• Copper (Cu): is used in electrical wires and pennies
• Aluminum (Al): is used in cans, foil, and airplanes
• Sodium (Na): is found in table salt (NaCl)
• Chlorine (Cl): is used to clean pools and is also in table salt
• Calcium (Ca): makes bones and teeth strong, and found in milk
• Potassium (K): is important for muscle function, and found in bananas
• Sulfur (S): has a rotten egg smell , and is used in fireworks
• Zinc (Zn): helps the immune system, and is in some metals
• Silicon (Si): is used in glass, sand, and computer chips
• Lead (Pb): is a heavy metal, and used in the past for pipes and paint
• Magnesium (Mg): is found in green plants and is used in fireworks

The 8 Planets of the Solar System

• Mercury: is the Smallest planet, has a gray, cratered surface, and no atmosphere
  • It is the Fastest planet, and orbits the Sun in just 88 days
• Venus: is bright yellow because of thick clouds, and is extremely hot
  • It is the hottest planet around, and even hotter than Mercury
• Earth: is blue and green, and has land, water and life
  • It is the only planet known to support life
• Mars: is reddish-orange, and has the tallest volcano (Olympus Mons)
  • It is called the "Red Planet" due to iron-rich soil
• Jupiter: is the largest planet and is brownish with swirling storms, and with the Great Red Spot
  • It has at least 92 moons, including Ganymede, the largest in the solar system
• Saturn: is golden-yellow and has beautiful rings
  • Its rings are made of ice and rock
• Uranus: is pale blue-green, and tilted sideways
  • It rotates on its side, rolling like a barrel
• Neptune: is deep blue, and has dark storms
  • It has the fastest winds in the solar system, over 1,200 mph!

How to Identify the Planets:

• Size:
  • Largest: Jupiter
  • Smallest: Mercury
• Color:
  • Gray: Mercury
  • Yellow: Venus, Saturn
  • Blue/Green: Earth, Uranus, Neptune
  • Red: Mars
  • Brownish with storms: Jupiter
• Rings:
  • Saturn has the biggest and brightest rings
  • Jupiter, Uranus, and Neptune also have rings, but they are faint
• Surface vs. Gas:
  • Rocky Planets (Terrestrial): Mercury, Venus, Earth, Mars
  • Gas Giants: Jupiter, Saturn
  • Ice Giants: Uranus, Neptune
• Special Features:
  • Mercury is the closest to the Sun, and has no atmosphere
  • Venus is the hottest planet, and has thick clouds that trap heat
  • Earth has water and supports life
  • Mars is red because of iron-rich dust
  • Jupiter is the largest planet, and has a giant storm (Great Red Spot)
  • Saturn has the most famous rings
  • Uranus spins on its side
  • Neptune is the windiest planet out there, and it is deep blue in color

Body Systems:

• Skeletal System (Bones & Structure):
  • Skull protects the brain
  • Spine (Vertebrae) supports the body and protects the spinal cord
  • Ribs protect heart and lungs
  • Femur is the longest and strongest bone in the body
  • Humerus is the upper arm bone
• Muscular System (Movement & Strength):
  • Biceps & Triceps are arm muscles
  • Quadriceps & Hamstrings are leg muscles
  • Abdominals (Abs) are stomach muscles
  • Gluteus Maximus is the butt muscle that helps in movement
  • Deltoid represents shoulder muscles
• Nervous System (Brain & Nerves):
  • Brain controls thoughts, movement, and body functions
  • Spinal Cord sends messages between the brain and body
  • Nerves carry signals to muscles and organs
• Circulatory System (Blood & Heart):
  • Heart pumps blood
  • Arteries carry oxygen-rich blood from the heart
  • Veins bring the blood back to the heart
  • Capillaries are small blood vessels that connect arteries and veins
• Respiratory System (Breathing & Oxygen):
  • Lungs helps us breathe
  • Trachea (Windpipe) connects the throat to the lungs
  • Diaphragm is the muscle that helps with breathing
• Digestive System (Breaking Down Food):
  • Mouth chews food
  • Esophagus is the tube that carries food to the stomach
  • Stomach breaks down food with acid
  • Small Intestine absorbs nutrients
  • Large Intestine absorbs water and forms waste
  • Liver produces bile to help digest fat
• Excretory System (Waste Removal):
  • Kidneys filter waste from blood and make urine
  • Bladder stores urine
  • Urethra releases urine from the body
• Endocrine System (Hormones & Growth):
  • Pituitary Gland represents the "Master gland" and controls other glands
  • Thyroid Gland regulates metabolism
  • Pancreas produces insulin to control blood sugar
• Integumentary System (Skin, Hair & Nails):
  • Skin represents the Largest organ, and protects the body
  • Hair helps to regulate temperature
  • Nails protects fingertips

The Four Layers of the Earth:

• Crust:
  • This is the thin and outermost layer where we live
  • Composed of solid rock (continental & oceanic)
  • It has a depth of 5-70 km deep
• Mantle:
  • This is the thickest layer
  • This is made of hot, semi-solid rock (magma)
  • It moves slowly in currents
  • It is 2,900 km deep
• Outer Core:
  • This is composed of a layer of liquid metal (iron & nickel)
  • Creates Earth's magnetic field
  • It is 2,200 km thick
• Inner Core:
  • This is composed of a solid metal (iron & nickel)
  • It is the hottest and densest layer
  • It has a 1,200 km radius

Layers of the Atmosphere:

• Troposphere:
  • It is the layer closest to the Earth's surface, where all weather occurs
  • A height between approximately 8-15 kilometers (5-9 miles) above the Earth's surface
  • It contains about 75% of the atmosphere's mass
  • A location where weather patterns (clouds, rain, storms) happen
  • Temperature decreases with altitude, and airplanes fly
• Stratosphere:
  • Above the troposphere, it contains the ozone layer that protects Earth from the Sun's harmful UV radiation
  • A height that extends between about 15 km to 50 km (9 to 31 miles) above Earth's surface
  • Temperature increases with altitude because of the ozone layer that absorbs radiation
  • The ozone layer is crucial for blocking harmful UV rays
  • Jet aircraft can fly in the lower part
• Mesosphere:
  • The layer above the stratosphere, where meteors burn up entering the Earth's atmosphere
  • Height extends from about 50 km to 85 km (31 to 53 miles) in the sky
  • Temperature decreases with altitude and is the coldest layer of the atmosphere
  • Also, most meteors burn up upon entering Earth's atmosphere
• Thermosphere:
  • In this layer temperatures rise dramatically because the atmosphere becomes very thin
  • Its height extends from about 85 km to 600 km (53 to 373 miles)
  • Temperatures can rise extremely high due to the absorption of high-energy solar radiation
  • Also, auroras (Northern and Southern Lights) occur because of interactions between solar winds and Earth's magnetic field, and spacecraft orbit
• Exosphere:
  • Outermost layer of Earth's atmosphere, where atmospheric particles escape into space
  • It starts around 600 km (373 miles) and extends out to about 10,000 km (6,200 miles) in height
  • Very thin air with particles that are far apart
  • The layer transitions into outer space, satellites orbit in this layer, and particles are sparse

Summary of Layers:

• The troposphere is where weather happens
• The stratosphere holds the ozone layer and where commercial jets fly
• The mesosphere is where meteors burn up in the atmosphere
• The thermosphere is where Auroras and high temperatures exist
• The exosphere to where the atmosphere transitions to space

Biomes: The Earth's Major Ecosystems

• A biome is a large geographic area characterized by its climate, vegetation, and animal life
• Biomes can be classified into terrestrial (land) and aquatic (water) types

Land Biomes:

• Tropical Rainforest:
  • Consist of a warm and humid year-round(high rainfall), located at Amazon (South America), Congo (Africa), Southeast Asia
  • Contains a vegetation of dense trees, vines, ferns, orchids with animals such as jaguars, toucans, monkeys, frogs, and insects
• Desert:
  • Features hot days, cold nights, and very low rainfall, and located at Sahara (Africa), Mojave (U.S.), and Gobi (Asia)
  • Vegetation has cacti, succulents, drought-resistant plants and animals such as camels, snakes, scorpions, lizards, and fennec foxes
• Grassland (Savanna & Prairie):
  • Has moderate rainfall, warm summers, and cold winters
  • Located at North American prairies and in African savannas
  • Vegetation has grasses, few treess, while animals are lions, elephants, bison, zebras, and cheetahs
• Temperate Deciduous Forest:
  • Experiences four seasons, and moderate rainfall, and located at Eastern U.S., Europe, and China
  • Consist of a vegetation with oak, maple, beech trees that shed leaves in fall, with animals such as deer, bears, foxes, squirrels, and owls
• Taiga (Boreal Forest):
  • Has mild temperatures, with four distinct seasons: spring, summer, fall, and winter and a moderate amount of rainfall
  • Vegetation in the area consist of deciduous forests and grasslands
• Tundra:
  • Cold, long winters combined with short summers and located in Canada, Russia, and Scandinavia
  • The vegetation area is the reason for coniferous trees (pine, spruce, fir), with animals such as moose, wolves, lynx, bears
• Tundra consists of areas of cold, long winters combined with short summers

Aquatic Biomes:

• Freshwater (Lakes, Rivers, Wetlands):
  • Consist of examples such as Amazon River, Great Lakes
  • Animals that are located there are fish, amphibians, beavers, and alligators
• Marine (Oceans, Coral Reefs, Estuaries):
  • Located at the Pacific Ocean, and the Great Barrier Reef
  • Animals there are whales, sharks, dolphins, corals, and sea turtles
• Ice Biomes (Polar Oceans & Glaciers):
  • Located near the Arctic Ocean, or Antarctica
  • Common animals there are Penguins, seals, walruses, orcas

The Water Cycle:

• The water cycle represents the continuous movement of water on, above, and below the surface of the Earth and plays a crucial role in maintaining life and regulating the Earth's climate
• The water cycle consists of the following:
  • Evaporation: Water from oceans, rivers, and lakes is heated by the sun and turns into water vapor, and rising into the atmosphere, while this process includes transpiration, where water is released from plants into the air as a gas
  • Condensation: As the water vapor rises, it cools in the atmosphere and changes back into tiny liquid droplets, and helps to form clouds, all while releasing heat
  • Precipitation: the water droplets in clouds combine, they fall back to Earth as rain, snow, sleet, hail, or dew, depending on the temperature, and a this stage helps rivers, lakes, and groundwater
  • Infiltration & Percolation: Some of the precipitation seeps into the soil and moves downward, replenishing underground water sources, known as groundwater, with the process of water being known to move through the soil as percolation allowing into aquifers
  • Runoff: Remaining water that is on the ground's surface, eventually makes its way into rivers, lakes, and oceans, and helping towards the bodies of water
  • Collection: Water accumulates back in oceans, lakes, and rivers, where it can evaporate again to

Climate Zones:

 - Consist of a warm year-round and high humidity area, heavy of rain, and rainforest type vegetation

• Arid:
  • Located near the equator
  • Consist of deserts and semi-deserts with a low rainfall typically of less than 10 inches, hot weather especially in summers and a cacti type vegetation
• Temperate:
  • Consist of much of Europe, North America, and Asia
  • Is mild, with four distinct seasons with moderate rainfall and vegetation such as deciduous forests, grasslands
• Continental:
  • Most interior of large continents like Russia and Canada
  • Contain cold winters and warm to hot summers, moderate precipitation, and vegetation such as mixed forests and grasslands
  • Includes Subtypes such as Warm Summer Continental, and Cool Summer Continental
• Polar:
  • Consist of near the poles (e.g., Arctic regions, Antarctica)
  • Consist of mostly cold weather temperatures with a low precipitation, long winters and short/cool summers, and tundra form vegetation
  • Subtypes include Tundra, or Ice Cap
• Highland
  • Consists of mountain regions such as the Andes, Himalayas, and Rocky Mountains
  • The temperatures can be cold for long periods of time, or Precipitation which can vary, Alpine meadows and high-altitude forests and this type is known to rapidly change, as the area in which different climates co exists

Types of Natural Disasters:

• Occur from catastrophic events caused by natural processes of the Earth and they contain devastating impacts on communities
• Natural disasters include the following:
  • Earthquakes: are natural vibrations that occur as the Earth's crust moves
  • Tsunamis: caused underwater earthquakes that can flood coastal areas and cause a lot of destruction
  • Hurricanes, Typhoons, and Cyclones: tropical storms with strong winds and heavy rainfall that damage entire ecosystems
  • Tornadoes: severe thunderstorms that create rotating columns of air that damage buildings
  • Volcanic Eruptions:release molten rock that affect Earth's crust
  • Floods occur from heavy rainfall amount of storms with water inundating the land that causes property damage
  • Landslides are landslides and mudslides that cause the soil to rock moving downhill and cause destruction to homes
  • Extended Wildfires dry conditions & lightning strikes and cause destruction to forests and property
  • Droughts occur with a decline on rainfall and crop failure
  • Extreme Heatwaves are hot weather and cause heat related illnesses
    • Avalanches: are the slides of snow and triggered by weather, which will cause the burial of structures

Phases of the Moon:

• New Moon:
  • Moon is positioned between the Earth and the Sun -The Moon appears not visible as illuminated
  • It symbolizes the start of the lunar cycle for many cultures
• Waxing Crescent:
  • Moon is located on an area starting to move away from the Sun
  • The appearance is a crescent-shaped sliver of light
  • As a phase that grows it represents the start of many growth projects
• First Quarter:
  • Located about a quarter of its orbit around Earth.
  • The appearance is a right angle
  • It symbolizes the first step of light the moon will show us

Types Of Energy

• Kinetic Energy:
  • The formula for it is KE= 1/2mv^2, where mass and velocity are to be found
  • Examples: A moving car or wind
• Potential Energy:
  • Examples are object stored for position or the amount of energy a compressed or stretched object
• Thermal Energy(Heat energy):
  • The energy is contained in an object created by the molecules motion. The more it moves the more energy that it possesses
  • Examples hot liquid or hear from the suns surface
• Chemical:
  • During this you will find the energy released while chemical reactions occur
  • Examples batteries, food and fuel
• Mechanical Energy:
  • The sum will possess the energy to potential as well.
• Gravitational Energy:
  • Is the energy related to its position relative to the earth

Simple Machines:

• Levers:
  • The lever's pivot point, or fulcrum, lessens effort as the structure lifts or moves.
• Pulleys:
  • The pulley is a type of system used to lift or move a heavy object.
• Inclined plane:
  • A flat, sloped surface that enables an object to move vertically. The less effort is the more its the force that applied
• The Wedge with a thick end tapers the thin it is more about what edge is used.
• Wheel and Axle:
  • A wheel and axle allow for the easier moving of objects that are heavy

Habitat

• Where an organism lives, grows, and thirives with food, water, shelter, and mates for reproduction
  • Forest support plants, trees and wildlife
  • Desert extreme temperatures and minimal levels of vegetation

Explore the classification and characteristics of igneous and sedimentary rocks. This includes intrusive vs extrusive rocks, crystal formation, and the composition of various rock types like conglomerate and shale. Learn about fossil preservation and energy sources.