I-O Psychology Chapter 2

Frameworks for Thought and Practice in I-O Psychology

Structuralism (1875-1920s)

• Influenced by physical/natural sciences
• Focus on studying the structure of the human mind or consciousness
• Analysed consciousness into basic elements (e.g., feelings, physical sensations, thoughts)
• Method of introspection: self-observation of one's immediate experience of a stimulus
• Criticisms: too simplistic, subjective approach, and unreliable method
• Contributions: establishing psychology as a science, scientific inquiry, and systematic methods

Functionalism (1888-1912)

• Emphasized the functions of consciousness and awareness of experiences
• Influenced by evolution theory (Darwin)
• Believed that the human mind is not static, but an adaptable process
• Studied individual differences through heredity and mental abilities
• Criticisms: only emphasizing functional behavior and learning
• Methods: observation tests, animal research, experiments, and statistics

Behaviourism (1920-1960s ongoing)

• Referred to as the 'first force' in psychology
• Focus on observable behavior and stimulus-response associations
• Recognized the role of internal, cognitive processes and genetics in learning
• Emphasized association between stimuli and responses
• Subdivided into:
  • Classical conditioning (Watson)
  • Operant conditioning (Skinner)
  • Social cognitive approaches (e.g., observational learning, Bandura)

Gestalt (1900-1930)

• Emphasized the wholeness (Gestalt) of experience, not just individual elements
• Focus on integrated, holistic understanding of human behavior and personality
• Gestalt principles applied to understanding culture, groups, and organizational climate

Psychoanalytic Paradigm (1885-1960s and ongoing)

• Founded by Sigmund Freud
• Studied the psyche by analyzing unconscious processes
• Uses process of free association
• Three levels of consciousness: conscious, pre-conscious, and unconscious
• Three psychic structures: id, ego, and super-ego
• Defence mechanisms: e.g., projection, repression
• Understanding unconscious processes and conflicts leads to deeper understanding of issues

Humanism (1950s ongoing)

• Focus on what it means to be human: integrated, whole beings with worth, potential, and rationality
• Developed in response to increasing technology and growth
• Emphasized self-actualization, autonomy, and self-fulfillment
• Human-management relations approach: employee as a person who wants to be recognized, supported, and grow personally

Cognitive Psychology

• Developed in response to behaviorism
• Focus on higher mental processes, cognition, and the relationship between body and mind
• How people form their cognitive constructs (understanding of the world)
• Increasing digitalization has facilitated the use of cognitive perspectives

Biological and Evolutionary Perspectives

• Biological psychology: focus on how biological processes influence behavior, feelings, and thinking
• Evolutionary psychology: human behavior and attributes are predetermined or genetically programmed

Positive Psychology

• Focus on strengths and virtues in people
• Study of human mind should focus on positive aspects of human functioning
• Emphasizes self-knowledge, self-awareness, and internal strengths
• No theory on personality, but agrees with humanist assumptions on positive regard and self-actualizing aspects

Trait Psychology

• Theory on personality research and assessment
• Trait concepts based on a broad base of psychological knowledge
• Human behavior characterized by enduring traits and patterns of behavior
• Traits considered neuro-psychic structures that indicate certain attributes and behavior

Socio-Cultural Approach

• Emphasized the influence of socio-cultural factors on human behavior
• Culture refers to a system of acquired knowledge, habits, rules, norms, communication, beliefs, and values
• Cultural approach emphasizes the need to consider the context and relevance of knowledge and practice

African Approach

• Unique cultural or indigenous African context and thinking
• Understanding the human psyche is to understand the relatedness of people to the greater cosmos
• Emphasis on communal identity, social order, and interconnectedness
• Ubuntu is central to the true ethos of being African: reflects in interpersonal and interactional behavior

Eastern/Asia Approaches

• Influenced by religion and philosophy (e.g., Hinduism and Buddhism)
• Emphasis on various states of consciousness, less emphasis on the I or ego-identity
• An emphasis on collectivism, unity, and connection in and with the cosmos, nature, and other people
• Personality adjustment and psychological well-being is optimal in the person who has developed a complete state of consciousness

Eco-Systemic Perspective

• Not a paradigm, but a way to think about phenomena
• System consists of subsystems, attributes, and relationships
• Human behavior can only be understood if the context is considered
• Emphasizes principles of Gestalt, holism, connectedness, contextualization, and dynamic systems

Utilizing Multiple Perspectives

• Metapsychology: scientific investigation of psychology as a science
• Metatheoretical assumptions need to be verified by research and practice
• Postmodernism: constructivism, deconstructivism, and social constructivism
• Thinking frameworks related to the nature of work and employees, and employee and organizational management