Hypokalemia, Catecholamines, and Albumin

Module 1

• Low potassium (Hypokalemia) requires heart monitoring.
• Cardiac arrhythmias are a symptom oh hypokalemia
• Hypokalemia symptoms encompass muscle weakness, paresthesia, hyporeflexia, leg cramps, weak/irregular pulse, hypotension, dysrhythmias, EKG changes, decreased bowel sounds, abdominal distension, constipation, ileus, and cardiac arrest.
• Catecholamines initiate the flight or fight response
• Epinephrine and norepinephrine are catecholamines
• Adrenaline leads to increased heart rate and blood pressure
• Tachycardia, increased blood pressure, increased heart rate, catecholamines, cortisol, epinipherine, adrenaline, and pupil dilation are all related
• Albumin is a plasma protein that binds with water
• Ascites can occur with decreased albumin
• Swelling and proteinuria indicate no albumin in the blood
• Ascites is abdominal swelling, caused by generalized fluid accumulation in the wrong places, which leads to generalized swelling (third spacing).
• Aldosterone causes sodium and water retention
• Sodium and water retention helps to maintain blood pressure.
• Intracellular fluid is inside cells
• Extracellular fluid is outside cells.
• Intravascular fluid is inside blood vessels.
• Interstitial fluid is between cells.
• Transcellular fluid is third spacing.
• Edema is caused by increased capillary hydrostatic pressure.
• Excess fluid in the interstitial space results from increased capillary hydrostatic pressure and decreased plasma protein.
• A symptom is what the patient experiences
• A sign is what you see in a patient
• Type 3 hypersensitivity reactions involve immune complex reactions
• Excessive immune response produces autoantibodies.
• Rheumatoid arthritis, systemic lupus, erythematosus, and rheumatic fever are examples of type 3 hypersensitivity
• Contact dermatitis is caused by contact with allergens.
• Irritant contact dermatitis is caused by chemicals, acids, rubber gloves, and soaps, triggering an inflammatory response without immune involvement
• Allergic contact dermatitis is caused by contact with metals, chemicals, adhesives, and poison ivy; sensitization and subsequent exposure produce manifestations
• Primary prevention involves taking vaccines.
• Secondary prevention involves screening to diagnose
• Tertiary prevention restores function and focuses on people already affected by disease
• Hyponatremia is fatal to the brain with decreased sodium present
• Metastatic cancer cells spread to proximal and distal sites, ignoring apoptosis signals
• Mitochondria and ribosomes provide energy for the cell
• Mitochondria contain their own DNA and ribosomes
• Ribosomes produce proteins
• Electrolytes, such as calcium, are stored in the bones
• Intracellular and extracellular ions exist

Module 2

• Colonoscopy screening is recommended after 50 years, as it takes 10 years for cancer to develop
• Colonoscopies should happen every 10 years
• Sigmoidoscopies should occur every 5 years
• Fecal occult blood tests should occur every year
• Bone marrow produces red blood cells, white blood cells, and platelets
• Localized inflammation results in redness, warmth, heat, and swelling
• Leukocytosis means increased white blood cell count
• Leukemia is a blood cancer that affects the production of red blood cells and platelets and means decreased WBCs
• Active immunity is developed through immunization or already having the disease
• Passive immunity is received from one's mother during birth or early infancy

Module 3

• Gout occurs due to abnormal uric acid metabolism, which causes increased uric acid in the blood
• Gout can cause damage to kidneys
• Gout is an inflammatory disease resulting from uric acid crystal deposits in tissues and fluids and is commonly found in organ meats, shellfish, anchovies, herring, asparagus, and mushrooms
• Symptoms of gout include intense pain at affected joint, starts during night and is described s throbbing, crushing, burning, joint warmth, redness, swelling, tenderness, fever, joint deformities, limited joint mobility
• Osteoporosis results from bone loss due to aging
• Osteoporosis causes loss of calcium from bones, leading to brittle bones and increased bone absorption.
• Myasthenia crisis affects muscles of the body
• Myasthenia crisis affects respirations
• During a myasthenia crisis, airway takes priority
• Compartment syndrome is a complication of bone fracture causing pain and tissue damage
• Compartment syndrome results from increased pressure in a muscle compartment, usually the muscle fascia in the case of fractures
• The five P's of compartment syndrome are pulselessness, paralysis, pallor, pain, and paresthesia

Module 4

• Stress reduces blood flow to the GI tract
• Stress can cause ulcers
• H. Pylori causes peptic ulcers
• Hirschsprung's disease is caused by the end of the colon not being fully developed in newborns
• Stools accumulate in Hirschsprung's disease, children are unable to pass stools, and colostomy is needed to empty stools
• Parietal cells of the gastric mucosa help with secretion of intrinsic factor and absorption of vitamin B12
• The frequent location of peptic ulcers is in the proximal duodenum
• Acid mixed with food comes into contact with the proximal duodenum
• Occult blood is not visible and can only be identified through testing
• Occult blood is blood in the stool
• Esophageal varices occurs as a complication to portal hypertension
• Complications of esophageal varices comprise problems with the liver

Module 5

• The anabolic process is forming complex molecules from simple molecules
• A genetic defect with cystitis involves determining what cystitis is
• Vesicoureteral reflux is the backflow of urine into the bladder
• Cycstits is inflammation of the bladder and the bladder lining
• Progesterone is the hormone associated with dysfunctional uterine bleeding
• Kidney disease can be identified due to pain at the costovertebral angle
• Symptoms associated with BPH includes the inability to pass urine effectively, cannot initiate a stream of urine, decreased urine output, sense of urgency
• Renin-angiotensin system can be activated by hypovolemia or hypotensive states
• Human papilloma virus is linked with cervical cancer
• Stress incontinence is an accidental leak of urine caused by jumping, coughing, sneezing, etc.

Module 6

• The cause for Diabetes (type 1 & 2) includes
  • Type 1 with deficiency or absence of insulin
  • Type 2 with increased resistance or decreased sensitivity to Insulin
• Graves disease symptoms with hyperthyroidism & hypothyroidism includes:
  • Hyper: increased metabolic rate, tachycardia, restlessness, insomnia, palpitations, diarrhea
  • Hypo: bradycardia, decreased HR, decreased BP, fatigue, constipation, cold intolerance
• Myxedema includes:
  • Hypothyroidism in adults
  • Life-threatening
  • Advanced hypotension
  • Coma-extreme
• Diabetes Insipidus has a deficiency in antidiuretic hormone
• SIADH with
  • increased production of antidiuretic hormone
  • Fluid retention
  • Too much fluid in the body
• DKA (Diabetic Ketoacidosis)
  • Complication of type 1 diabetes
  • Build up of ketones body and produces end products
  • Tachycardia

Module 7

• Cushing syndrome presents with hypercortisolism that exhibits increased cortisol secretions
• Excessive amounts of glucocorticoids is a characteristic of Cushing syndrome
• Excessive cortisol levels that result from increased ACTH levels (adrenocorticotropic) is another indicator
• Assessment findings for Cushing Syndrome includes:
  • Hypercortilosim
  • Trunkal obesity
  • Hyperglycemia
  • Moon face
  • Buffalo hump
  • Weight gain
  • Edema
  • Hypokalemia
  • Hypertension
• Insulin reduces blood sugar
• Glucagon increases blood sugar levels
• Acromegaly and gigantism demonstrate differences
  • Acromegaly involves increased bone growth after growth plates fuse
  • Gigantism leads to increased growth hormone before the epiphyseal plates fuse
• Parathyroid gland problems causes calcium imbalance
• It helps to maintain calcium levels
• Priority assessment includes spinal cord injury
  • Consider Airway, Breathing, Circulation
  • Maintain stabilization of spinal cord
• Mechanism of spinal cord injury includes hyperextension, hyperflexion and compression injury
• Glasgow coma scale checks patients level of consciousness
  • Indicates eye response, verbal response and motor response
• Compression injury includes Diving accidents
• Cerebral palsy causes included delivery complications

Module 8

• The difference between epidural and subarachnoid bleed
  • Epidural bleed involves breaking of the arteries quickly
  • Subarcahonoid involves breaking of the vein slowly and gradually
• Hemorrhagic stroke involves bleeding in the brain
• Thromboembolic stroke involves a thrombus/clot in the brain
• Compression of the brain can happen from increased intracranial pressure
  • Inflammation of the brain tissue
  • Inability of the brain tissue to expand
• Signs of Increased ICP:
  • Patient loss of consciousness
  • Pupil dilation
  • Restlessness
  • Agitation
  • Disorentation
• Secondary brain injury after head trauma is
  • Brain injury resulting from Bodys response to tissue damage
• Meningitis and encephalitis include increased ammonia levels in the blood.
• Meningitis indicates inflammation of the meninges
• Encephalitis indicates inflammation of the brain and ammonia levels increase
• Seizures definition and classification includes classifying based on clinical symptoms from the EEG (electroencephalogram) and patients signs and symptoms
• Parkinsons Disease Symptoms includes:
  • Problem with mobility and functioning
  • Deficiency of neurotransmitter dopamine, which controls mobility
• Cause of CVA and Diagnoses are bleeding, hemorrhaging, or moving clot and diagnosed via CT scan
• Reperfusion Injury is an injury that occurs after the perfusion has restored
• Ventilator for dependent patients
  • Priority is airway
  • Suction frequently

Module 9

• Normal INR is between 0.8-1.1 seconds
• High INR symptoms are typically seen in patients on blood thinners, with INR ranging from 2-3
• Hemostasis is the stoppage of blood flow and normal vessel sealing, while homeostasis maintains equilibrium and is caused by first step is vasospasm
• A sickle cell crisis' pain is the main problem
  • It's a painful episode in someone with sickle cell anemia that can last for hours to days
  • Its treatment is hydration, pain management, and rest
• Widespread intravascular coagulation occurs simultaneously with bleeding and clotting simultaneously which occurs intravascularly - Treatment by identifying the cause - Complication with sepsis
• Anemia leads to tissue hypoxia
• Erythropoietin help helps in the RBC synthesis
• Thrombocytopenia includes decreased platelets
• Antihemophillic factor, or factor A, involves given antihemophillic factor
• Complete blood count includes WBC, RBCs, platelets, hemoglobin
• Prothrombin Time?
  • How long until a clot happens

Module 10

• Clot formation involves vasospasm
• Plasma proteins consist of Albumin, Globulin, and Fibrinogen
• Blood in vomitus indicates hematemesis
• Erythropoetin help helps in red blood synthesis involves
• Anemia lead to tissue hypoxia
• Hodgkins - affects upper part of the body
• Presence of reed-sternberg cells indicates need for biopsy.
• Non-hodgkins- affects any part of the body
• Ventricular dysfunction causes cardiogenic shock
• Decrease blood volume or hemorrhage, septic shock causes include hypotension and dehydration and sepsis or infection throughout the body
• Obstructive shock happen fromMechanical obstruction in blood flow caused from pulmonary embolism, cardiac tamponade and tension pneumothorax
• Loss in consciousness, tachycardia, hypotension causes complications of shock
• Phlebitis is inflammation of the vein
• Fluid overload in the lungs cause problems with fluid overload
• Heart Failure problems include left side where priority for assessment
• Heart Failure Right side priority-painful edema
• Complete block or MI happens injury to endothelium coronary arteries

Module 11

• Cause of hypertension – Damage to heart and kidneys
• Factors of hypertension – Advanced aging
• Pain can radiate to neck, shoulders, and back include EKG changes that cause emergency situation
• Stable- chest pain due to activity and unstable that happens – Increased intensity/frequency
• Narrowing of the bronchioles is symptoms of Anaphylactic
• Decrease in output-Causes low blood pressure
• Coronary arteries – Damages to endothelium of coronary arteries
• Gl disorder- Autoimmune and recessive
• Pains are from Macburkeys

Overview of hypokalemia and its cardiac implications. Discusses symptoms like muscle weakness and arrhythmias. Explores the roles of catecholamines, epinephrine, and albumin in bodily functions, including fluid balance and the fight or flight response.