Hypersensitivity and Connective Tissue-Bone
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Questions and Answers

What is the primary characteristic of interstitial fluid?

  • It is the largest compartment in terms of fluid volume.
  • It contains only water with no electrolytes.
  • It is a medium where water and dissolved electrolytes reside. (correct)
  • It is directly responsible for blood pressure regulation.

Which pressure promotes absorption back into capillaries?

  • Plasma colloid osmotic pressure (correct)
  • Capillary hydrostatic pressure
  • Interstitial fluid pressure
  • Interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure

What distinguishes pitting edema from non-pitting edema?

  • Non-pitting edema occurs only in arteries.
  • Pitting edema only occurs in the vascular compartment.
  • Pitting edema is characterized by free fluid in the interstitial space. (correct)
  • Pitting edema has no fluid buildup.

How do veins and venules differ from arteries and arterioles in their structure?

<p>Veins can expand more due to thinner walls compared to arteries. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to arterial blood pressure when more blood is added to the body?

<p>Arterial blood pressure increases due to the lack of distensibility. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is primarily caused by vitamin B12 or folate deficiency?

<p>Megaloblastic anemia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following causes increased plasma volume relative to RBCs?

<p>Pregnancy (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What type of jaundice is characterized by excessive RBC destruction?

<p>Pre-hepatic jaundice (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is not a symptom of anemia?

<p>Jaundice (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What occurs during primary hemostasis in the hemostatic process?

<p>Vasoconstriction and platelet plug formation (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which disorder is characterized by a genetic deficiency in clotting factors?

<p>Hemophilia (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What leads to chronic anemia potentially resulting in long-term damage to the heart?

<p>Reduced oxygen delivery (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In the coagulation cascade, what activates thrombin?

<p>The coagulation cascade (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary role of the aorta during systole?

<p>To distend and store energy. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a 'thready' pulse typically indicate?

<p>Low pulse pressure. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does sympathetic nervous system activation affect arterial pressure?

<p>It promotes arterial vasoconstriction, increasing pressure. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does pulse pressure measure?

<p>The difference between systolic and diastolic blood pressure. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following statements about stroke volume is true?

<p>Greater stroke volume results in a greater rise and fall of pressure. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to right atrial pressure during exercise?

<p>Less time is spent in diastole, affecting pressure changes. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of aortic elastic recoil during diastole?

<p>It generates inward pressure to propel blood forward. (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does a 'bounding' pulse indicate?

<p>A potential condition of elevated systolic pressure. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a key indicator of potential DVT that is particularly important in individuals with darker skin tones?

<p>Asymmetry in leg size (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which symptom is NOT typically associated with the diagnosis of DVT?

<p>Elevated blood pressure (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What should be the immediate action taken upon suspecting a DVT?

<p>Refer to the Emergency Room (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

The presence of varicose veins in a limb suggests what, according to the given considerations?

<p>May suggest venous insufficiency (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following is considered a general risk factor for developing DVT?

<p>Immobility during long flights (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following conditions can complicate the diagnosis of DVT?

<p>Cellulitis (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

In which situation might an athlete be at increased risk for DVT?

<p>During extreme dehydration from intense exercise (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What factor may trigger a rare case of upper extremity DVT shortly after vaccination?

<p>Recent COVID-19 vaccination (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What role do cytokines play in muscle repair?

<p>Enhancing cell survival by resisting oxidative stress (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes active immunity?

<p>Protection resulting from direct exposure to a pathogen (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

During the process of muscle healing, what function do satellite cells serve?

<p>They convert into contractile muscle tissue. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary characteristic of innate immunity?

<p>It offers rapid and non-specific protection against pathogens. (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What triggers the process of diapedesis?

<p>The active migration of leukocytes out of blood vessels (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which of the following best describes an effusion?

<p>Fluid leakage due to inflammation (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which immunoglobulin type is primarily associated with allergies?

<p>IgE (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the term 'chemotaxis' refer to in the immune response?

<p>The attraction of cells to an inflammatory site by chemokines (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the main function of angiogenesis in muscle tissue repair?

<p>To provide nutrients and oxygen to new muscle cells (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What does the 'absolute refractory period' refer to in cardiac physiology?

<p>The heart can’t be stimulated to contract at all (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What initiates the cough reflex?

<p>Mechanical or chemical stimulation of the larynx (D)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Which statement about airway resistance during inspiration is true?

<p>Tissues are pulled apart, reducing airway resistance. (A)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What condition is characterized by bronchoconstriction?

<p>Smooth muscle contraction in bronchioles (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What happens to partial pressure of oxygen (PaO₂) during exercise?

<p>It decreases as more oxygen is used. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the primary method of oxygen transport in the bloodstream?

<p>Bound to hemoglobin (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

How does airway resistance change during expiration?

<p>Airway resistance increases as tissues are compressed. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the effect of decreased lung compliance?

<p>Impaired gas exchange (C)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What physiological event occurs during a sneeze reflex?

<p>Irritation in the nasal pathways triggers a reflex response. (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is a significant consequence of a pulmonary embolism?

<p>Lack of blood flow to alveoli (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

What is the normal alveolar partial pressure of oxygen (PAO₂) at sea level?

<p>100-105 mmHg (B)</p> Signup and view all the answers

Flashcards

Satellite cell function in muscle repair

Satellite cells move to injured muscle tissue, transforming into contractile muscle cells, facilitating muscle healing.

Cytokine effect on satellite cells

Cytokines enhance satellite cell survival, prevent muscle fiber formation, promote cell division and fusion into muscle fibres, and improve blood vessel growth.

Innate immunity

An immediate, non-specific immune response that eliminates pathogens quickly.

Adaptive immunity

A specific immune response, developing a memory to fight off future attacks.

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Antigen

A molecule that triggers an immune response (antibody or T-cell binding).

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Immunogen

An antigen that actually causes an immune response.

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Antibody

Protein produced by B-lymphocytes that targets and neutralizes antigens.

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Granulomatous inflammation

Immune response involving a collection of immune cells, like macrophages and lymphocytes.

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Effusion

Leakage of fluid into a body cavity.

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Chemotaxis

Attraction of cells to a particular location by chemical signals.

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Interstitial fluid

The fluid found in the spaces between cells, containing water and dissolved electrolytes.

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Fluid movement between compartments

Water and electrolytes filter from blood vessels into the interstitial space and then are reabsorbed back into the blood vessels.

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Starling's forces

Four forces that determine the movement of fluid between blood vessels and interstitial space: capillary hydrostatic pressure, interstitial fluid pressure, plasma colloid osmotic pressure, and interstitial fluid colloid osmotic pressure.

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Pitting edema

Fluid buildup in the interstitial space that causes indentations when pressed.

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Arterial vs. Venous pressure

Arteries have thicker walls and less distensibility than veins. This means arterial pressure changes more dramatically with changes in blood volume, while venous pressure changes less due to the veins' ability to expand.

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Megaloblastic Anemia

Anemia caused by vitamin B12 or folate deficiency, resulting in large, fragile red blood cells (RBCs).

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Anemia of Chronic Disease

Anemia caused by chronic inflammation, affecting iron metabolism and reducing hemoglobin synthesis.

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Hemolytic Anemia

Anemia caused by the premature destruction of red blood cells (RBCs).

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Blood Loss Anemia

Anemia caused by excessive blood loss, either acute or chronic.

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Dilutional Anemia

Anemia caused by an increase in plasma volume relative to red blood cells (RBCs), often during pregnancy.

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Jaundice

Yellow discoloration of skin and eyes due to elevated bilirubin levels in the blood.

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Pre-hepatic Jaundice

Jaundice caused by excessive red blood cell (RBC) destruction, leading to increased unconjugated bilirubin.

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Hepatic Jaundice

Jaundice caused by impaired liver function, preventing proper bilirubin conjugation.

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Aortic Distensibility

The ability of the aorta to stretch and expand, allowing it to store energy during systole and release it during diastole, ensuring continuous blood flow.

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Pulse Pressure

The difference between systolic and diastolic arterial blood pressure, reflecting the pressure wave generated by the heart's contractions.

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Bounding Pulse

A large pulse pressure, indicating a significant difference between systolic and diastolic pressures.

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Thready Pulse

A weak pulse with a low pulse pressure, typically due to a low systolic pressure.

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Stroke Volume (SV)

The amount of blood ejected from the ventricle with each heartbeat, influenced by cardiac contractility and afterload.

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Sympathetic Nervous System Activation & Pulse Pressure

Sympathetic activation causes vasoconstriction (reduced vessel distensibility), increasing systolic pressure and thus increasing pulse pressure.

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Right Atrial Pressure

The pressure within the right atrium, influenced by venous blood pressure and right atrial pressure.

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Exercise & Right Atrial Pressure

During exercise, more time is spent in systole, reducing the time available for diastole and emptying the right atrium into the right ventricle.

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DVT Red Flags

Signs indicating a potential Deep Vein Thrombosis (DVT) requiring immediate medical attention. Includes sudden leg or arm swelling, skin discoloration, redness, blue tinge, and swelling extending to the foot, ankle, or thigh.

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DVT in Darker Skin Tones

Diagnosing DVT can be challenging in darker skin tones as redness might not be as apparent. Focus on asymmetry in leg size, warmth, and swelling.

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DVT and Varicose Veins

The presence of varicose veins doesn't rule out DVT. While they suggest venous insufficiency, a deep vein thrombosis can still be present.

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DVT and Cellulitis

Cellulitis, a skin infection, can co-occur with DVT, making diagnosis tricky. Cellulitis redness spreads in a distinct pattern.

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DVT Referral Urgency

Any suspicion of DVT requires immediate referral to the Emergency Room. Delaying can lead to potentially fatal complications like pulmonary embolism.

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DVT Risk Factors

Common factors increasing the risk of DVT include prolonged immobility, pregnancy/postpartum period, hormonal therapies, and inflammatory conditions.

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DVT After Vaccination

While rare, DVT can occur after procedures or vaccinations (like COVID-19). Vigilance is crucial.

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Athletes and DVT

Endurance athletes are prone to DVT due to muscle damage, inflammation, dehydration, and blood thickening during prolonged activity.

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Cough Reflex

A protective mechanism that expels irritants or foreign objects from the respiratory tract. It involves a sequence of events triggered by irritation in the larynx, trachea, or carina, leading to forceful expulsion of air.

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Sneeze Reflex

Similar to the cough reflex, but initiated by irritation in the nasal pathways. It involves rapid inspiration and forceful expulsion of air, with the uvula depressed to allow airflow through the nose.

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Airway Resistance

The opposition to airflow in the respiratory tract. It is influenced by the diameter of the airways, with larger diameters resulting in lower resistance.

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Bronchoconstriction

Narrowing of the bronchioles, primarily due to the contraction of smooth muscle in the airway walls. This is triggered by parasympathetic nerve stimulation.

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Bronchodilation

Expansion of the bronchioles, primarily due to relaxation of smooth muscle in the airway walls. This is triggered by sympathetic nerve stimulation.

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Partial Pressure

The pressure exerted by a specific gas in a mixture of gases. It is calculated by multiplying the atmospheric pressure by the percentage of the gas in the air.

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FᵢO₂

The fraction of inspired oxygen, representing the percentage of oxygen in the air we breathe. It is typically 21% in normal atmospheric air, but can be adjusted with supplemental oxygen.

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PAO₂

Alveolar partial pressure of oxygen, which is the partial pressure of oxygen in the alveoli of the lungs. Typically around 100-105 mmHg at sea level.

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PaO₂

Systemic arterial partial pressure of oxygen, which is the partial pressure of oxygen in the arterial blood. Usually around 100 mmHg at sea level.

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PvO₂

Systemic venous partial pressure of oxygen, which is the partial pressure of oxygen in the venous blood. Typically around 40 mmHg at rest, decreasing during exercise due to increased oxygen extraction by tissues.

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Study Notes

Hypersensitivity

  • Hypersensitivity is an increased immune response to antigens, causing undesirable clinical effects.
  • Type 1: Immediate Hypersensitivity (Atopy)
    • IgE is produced, releasing histamine, leading to allergic responses.
  • Type 2: Cytotoxic reactions to self-antigens.
    • Immune response to the body's own tissues (e.g., Goodpasture's syndrome, Myasthenia Gravis).
  • Type 3: Immune Complex Diseases.
    • Antigen-antibody complexes deposit around small blood vessels (e.g., Rheumatoid Arthritis, Systemic Lupus Erythematosus).
  • Type 4: Cell-Mediated Immunity.
    • Delayed reactions to allergens (48-72 hours) (e.g., transplant rejections, contact dermatitis).

Connective Tissue-Bone

  • Cortical bone (compact bone): majority of bone, tough outer layer covered by periosteum.
  • Cancellous bone (spongy or trabecular bone): contacts bone marrow.
  • Cellular components: osteoblasts (immature bone cells), osteocytes (mature bone cells), osteoclasts (break down ECM, release minerals).
  • Non-cellular components: osteoid (main component with collagen), hydroxyapatite (main mineralized component).

Fracture Repair

  • Internal bleeding at the injury site, followed by clot formation with fibroblasts, platelets, and inflammatory cells.
  • Hematoma formation (lasts ~1 week), followed by inflammatory response and new blood vessel formation.
  • Soft callus forms, which then transforms into a hard callus.
  • Remodeling occurs, with woven bone replaced by lamellar bone over months to years.
  • Cytokines enhance resistance to oxidative stress, promoting muscle healing and new tissue regeneration.

Satellite Cells

  • Satellite cells move into the injured muscle area and differentiate into contractile tissue (muscle cells).

Innate vs. Adaptive Immunity

  • Innate: non-specific; rapidly eliminates pathogens (external defenses, phagocytes, soluble mediators).
  • Adaptive: specific; creates a memory response to fight off future pathogens.

Humoral vs. Cell-Mediated Immunity

  • Humoral: Antibodies produced by B-lymphocytes.
  • Cell-mediated: T-cells attacking pathogens directly.

Immunoglobulins (Antibodies)

  • IgM: First antibody produced.
  • IgG: Long-lasting immunity.
  • IgA: Mucosal immunity.
  • IgE: Allergic reactions

Blood Components

  • Plasma: 55-65% of total blood volume, primarily water and dissolved constituents.
  • Cellular Components: 35-45%, including red blood cells (RBCs), white blood cells (WBCs), and platelets.
  • Hematocrit: Percentage of blood volume occupied by RBCs.

Spleen's Role

  • Removes old or dysfunctional RBCs, plays a role in immune responses.
  • Splenomegaly (enlarged spleen) often occurs with dysfunctional RBC circulation (e.g., sickle cell disease).

Exercise and Blood Volume

  • Increased RBC production due to EPO release.
  • Increased plasma volume during exercise.
  • Lower blood pressure due to improved vascular health.

Blood Cell Production

  • Hematopoiesis: occurs primarily in bone marrow, and can occur outside the bone marrow (extramedullary hematopoiesis).

Kidney Function and GFR

  • Glomerular Filtration Rate (GFR): volume of filtered plasma per minute.
  • Sympathetic role: vasoconstricts afferent arterioles, reducing GFR.

Chronic Conditions Affecting Kidneys and Bladder

  • Hypertension: sympathetic overactivation causes glomerular hypertension, leading to proteinuria, scarring, and chronic kidney disease.
  • Diabetes: elevated glucose increases sodium reabsorption and hyperfiltration causing chronic damage.

Week 8 Blood

  • Fall and Fracture Risk: muscle weakness, neuropathy, reduced calcium/vitamin D levels.
  • Edema: Impaired fluid regulation.
  • Anemia: reduced erythropoietin production lowers red blood cell count.

Hematopoiesis and Erythropoiesis

  • Hematopoiesis: production of all blood cells.
  • Erythropoiesis: specific production of red blood cells (RBCs).
  • Main components: RBCs, WBCs, platelets.
  • Regulation: EPO from kidneys, and various cytokines.

Blood Cell Lineages

  • Cell types derived from lymphoid progenitors: B lymphocytes, T lymphocytes, plasma cells, natural killer cells.
  • Cell types derived from myeloid progenitors: erythrocytes (RBCs), platelets, granulocytes (neutrophils, eosinophils, basophils), monocytes (macrophages).

Blood Cell Composition

  • Plasma: mostly water.
  • Cellular components: RBCs, WBCs, and platelets.
  • Hematocrit: percentage of blood volume occupied by RBCs.

Iron Metabolism

  • Iron forms (heme iron, non-heme iron)
  • Absorption: through enterocytes directly or by transferring into erythrocytes
  • Storage: ferritin and hemosiderin in the liver.
  • Metabolism and transport: regulation by hepcidin and transferrin.

Bilirubin Metabolism

  • Breakdown of hemoglobin releases heme and globin.
  • Breakdown of heme produces bilirubin.
  • Bilirubin is processed in the liver and then excreted in bile.
  • Excretion of bilirubin in feces gives it brown color.

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Description

This quiz explores the mechanisms and types of hypersensitivity reactions, including immediate and delayed responses. It also covers the structure and components of connective tissue, specifically focusing on bone. Test your knowledge on immunology and bone biology.

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