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Questions and Answers
What is the primary function of gametes in human reproduction?
What is the primary function of gametes in human reproduction?
How many chromosomes are present in a fertilized egg (zygote)?
How many chromosomes are present in a fertilized egg (zygote)?
What is the role of the testes in the AMAB reproductive system?
What is the role of the testes in the AMAB reproductive system?
During which stage of development do AMAB and AFAB sex organs become distinguishable?
During which stage of development do AMAB and AFAB sex organs become distinguishable?
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What is the term for the unification of egg and sperm?
What is the term for the unification of egg and sperm?
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What structure prevents the testes from re-entering the abdominal cavity during development?
What structure prevents the testes from re-entering the abdominal cavity during development?
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What type of cell division occurs after fertilization to form an embryo?
What type of cell division occurs after fertilization to form an embryo?
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Which of the following is NOT a function of the AFAB reproductive system?
Which of the following is NOT a function of the AFAB reproductive system?
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What is the main purpose of a Pap test?
What is the main purpose of a Pap test?
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What is oogenesis?
What is oogenesis?
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During oogenesis, what happens to the cytoplasm and nutrients as the primary oocyte undergoes meiosis I?
During oogenesis, what happens to the cytoplasm and nutrients as the primary oocyte undergoes meiosis I?
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What is formed from the remaining cells of a ruptured follicle after ovulation?
What is formed from the remaining cells of a ruptured follicle after ovulation?
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What is the chromosome count of a secondary oocyte?
What is the chromosome count of a secondary oocyte?
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Which hormone does the corpus luteum secrete if pregnancy does not occur?
Which hormone does the corpus luteum secrete if pregnancy does not occur?
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What role do granulosa cells play in oogenesis?
What role do granulosa cells play in oogenesis?
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What structure carries the secondary oocyte towards fertilization?
What structure carries the secondary oocyte towards fertilization?
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What is the primary process during early embryo development that leads to the formation of three distinct layers?
What is the primary process during early embryo development that leads to the formation of three distinct layers?
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Which of the following structures is NOT formed by the ectoderm layer?
Which of the following structures is NOT formed by the ectoderm layer?
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At what stage is the embryo referred to as a fetus?
At what stage is the embryo referred to as a fetus?
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Which layer of the gastrula develops into the internal organs?
Which layer of the gastrula develops into the internal organs?
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What significant developmental change begins during the second trimester of pregnancy?
What significant developmental change begins during the second trimester of pregnancy?
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What is the fate of cells that make up the endoderm layer?
What is the fate of cells that make up the endoderm layer?
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Which of the following is a characteristic feature at the end of the first month of pregnancy?
Which of the following is a characteristic feature at the end of the first month of pregnancy?
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Which term describes the development of the embryo from a single cell to a three-layered gastrula?
Which term describes the development of the embryo from a single cell to a three-layered gastrula?
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What is the primary purpose of hormone medications in in vitro fertilization?
What is the primary purpose of hormone medications in in vitro fertilization?
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What significant milestone was achieved in 1978 relating to in vitro fertilization?
What significant milestone was achieved in 1978 relating to in vitro fertilization?
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What complication occurs in approximately 20% of in vitro fertilization cases?
What complication occurs in approximately 20% of in vitro fertilization cases?
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Which of the following is a medication commonly used prior to IVF to stimulate egg development?
Which of the following is a medication commonly used prior to IVF to stimulate egg development?
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What procedure involves fertilizing eggs in a laboratory before implanting them in the uterus?
What procedure involves fertilizing eggs in a laboratory before implanting them in the uterus?
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Which statement is true regarding in vitro fertilization and egg retrieval?
Which statement is true regarding in vitro fertilization and egg retrieval?
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What is one of the common purposes of fertility drugs?
What is one of the common purposes of fertility drugs?
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Which procedure involves sampling amniotic fluid for genetic testing?
Which procedure involves sampling amniotic fluid for genetic testing?
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What is the hormone produced by the chorion that maintains the corpus luteum during early pregnancy?
What is the hormone produced by the chorion that maintains the corpus luteum during early pregnancy?
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What role does the amniotic cavity play during pregnancy?
What role does the amniotic cavity play during pregnancy?
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Which structure forms from the fusion of cells from the chorion and endometrium?
Which structure forms from the fusion of cells from the chorion and endometrium?
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What is the primary function of the placenta during pregnancy?
What is the primary function of the placenta during pregnancy?
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What happens to progesterone levels in a woman's body during pregnancy?
What happens to progesterone levels in a woman's body during pregnancy?
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Which structure does NOT envelop the fetus during development?
Which structure does NOT envelop the fetus during development?
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Where does early red blood cell formation occur in the embryo?
Where does early red blood cell formation occur in the embryo?
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What is the function of chorionic villi in the placenta?
What is the function of chorionic villi in the placenta?
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What is the primary process involved in cleavage after fertilization?
What is the primary process involved in cleavage after fertilization?
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What fluid-filled structure develops from the zygote around days 5-7 after fertilization?
What fluid-filled structure develops from the zygote around days 5-7 after fertilization?
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Which structure is responsible for forming the placenta?
Which structure is responsible for forming the placenta?
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What occurs after the blastocyst stage, around day 7 of development?
What occurs after the blastocyst stage, around day 7 of development?
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Which hormones are crucial for maintaining pregnancy by preventing menstruation?
Which hormones are crucial for maintaining pregnancy by preventing menstruation?
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What is the expected duration of a typical pregnancy counted from the last menstrual period?
What is the expected duration of a typical pregnancy counted from the last menstrual period?
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What effect do high levels of estrogen and progesterone have during pregnancy?
What effect do high levels of estrogen and progesterone have during pregnancy?
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What will happen if the corpus luteum deteriorates during pregnancy?
What will happen if the corpus luteum deteriorates during pregnancy?
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Study Notes
Human Reproduction & Development
- The specialized reproductive cells of humans are produced, unite in, and develop within the organs of the male and female reproductive systems.
- The male gonads (testes) produce sperm.
- The female gonad (ovary) produces eggs.
- Fertilization is the fusion of a male and female sex cell, creating a single-celled zygote.
- The zygote divides and develops into an embryo, then a fetus.
How to Build a Human
- Human embryo and fetal development from fertilization to birth.
- Various stages of fetal development are displayed in a spiral diagram.
- Stages are correlated to typical ages.
- Ectoderm, endoderm, and mesoderm are the three germ layers.
Human Sexual Reproduction: Production of Gametes
- Gametes (sex cells) contain 23 chromosomes instead of 46.
- Eggs and sperm are haploid.
- They contain only one copy of each chromosome.
Human Sexual Reproduction: Fertilization
- The unification of egg and sperm.
- Sperm and egg both contain 23 chromosomes.
- The fertilized egg has 46 chromosomes.
A Brief Recall of 'Gender Spectrum'
- Assigned Male at birth - AMAB.
- Assigned Female at Birth - AFAB.
- Nonbinary people identify as neither completely female nor completely male.
- Sexuality is a spectrum but is separate from both sex and gender.
People with a Penis Anatomy - AMAB
- The AMAB reproductive system includes the penis, testes, epididymis, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, ejaculatory duct, and urethra.
- There are a few different supporting structures for sperm and eggs
- The structures within the AMAB reproductive system and their specific functions.
Today's Objectives (Reproductive Structures cont.)
- Structures and functions of the male reproductive system (testes, seminiferous tubules, interstitial cells, Sertoli cells, epididymides, vasa deferentia, Cowper's glands, seminal vesicles, prostate gland, ejaculatory duct, urethra, penis).
- Distinguishing between sperm cells and the supporting structures in the male reproductive system (seminiferous tubules, interstitial cells, Sertoli cells, follicle, corpus luteum).
Reproductive Systems Overview
- Humans reproduce sexually, relying on specialized cells from both sexes.
- The male reproductive system produces sperm; the female produces eggs.
- These cells unite during the process of fertilization, creating an embryo, later becoming a fetus.
The Penis People's Reproductive System
- AMAB and AFAB sex organs originate in the abdominal cavity, becoming differentiated around the third month of embryonic development.
- Genes on the sex chromosomes are a defining factor in the differentiation process.
- The testes descend into the scrotum during the final two months of fetal development.
The Penis People Cont.
- Inguinal hernia is possible result of injury to the membrane between the scrotum and the abdomen.
- The hernia can be dangerous because a portion of the small intestine can slip into the scrotum, causing pressure on the testes and potentially restricting blood flow.
Penis People's Reproductive Structures
- Testes (male gonads).
- Scrotum (sac containing testes).
- Vas deferens (sperm transport).
- Ejaculatory duct.
- Glans penis.
- Temperature regulation is important in sperm development.
Questions
- Preventing fertilization involving AMAB reproductive tissue.
- The nervous system section controlling blood flow to tissues (dilation/ constriction).
- Description of the pathway sperm travel from the testis to the external environment, involving the various structures.
- The AMAB reproductive structures (testis, epididymis, etc.) and their functions.
- The impact of any blockage in the male reproductive system.
Reproductive Structures cont.
- Sperm production in the testes.
- Sperm travel through the vas deferens to the ejaculatory duct.
- Blockage in the vas deferens prevents sperm from reaching the external environment.
Seminal Fluid
- Semen is a fluid composed of sperm and fluids produced by the reproductive organs.
- Ejaculation is the process by which semen leaves the body via the penis.
- The glands involved in semen production (seminal vesicles, prostate gland, Cowper's glands).
- The role or function of semen in the reproductive process.
Spermatogenesis
- Spermatogenesis is the formation of sperm cells, occurring within the seminiferous tubules of the testes.
- Specialized cells, called Sertoli cells, nourish developing sperm cells until they are mature.
- Sertoli cells form a barrier between the blood and the seminiferous tubules, protecting the cells from foreign substances and helping in metabolic and mechanical support for sperm development.
Additional Topics
- Epididymis, detailed description of the structure, and function in the overall process.
- Sperm cell anatomy, providing the function of each part of the sperm cell.
- Detailed description of Seminal Fluid components.
- The different glands involved in the production of seminal fluids, and their specific secretions.
Summary of AFAB Reproductive System
- The AFAB reproductive system includes the ovaries, fallopian tubes, uterus, endometrium, cervix, and vagina.
- Ovaries; production of eggs; hormone production.
- Fallopian tubes; passageway for egg from ovary to uterus.
- Uterus; pear-shaped organ where the developing embryo/fetus matures.
- Endometrium; inner layer of the uterus.
- Cervix; a band of muscle connecting vagina to uterus.
- Vagina; muscular tube connecting cervix to external environment.
Vagina People's Reproductive System
- Development of AFAB secondary sexual characteristics during puberty (breasts, hips development).
- Ovaries initially located inside the abdomen and remain inside the pelvis (differing from the testes).
- Oocytes (immature eggs) are already present in the ovaries at the time of birth.
Vagina People's Anatomy
- Ovarian structure, paired organs homologous to the testes.
- Fallopian tubes (oviducts), paired tubes connecting ovaries to uterus; finger-like projections called fimbriae are present at the ovarian end.
- Uterus (womb), pear-shaped organ where the embryo/fetus develops; composed of endometrium (inner lining).
- Cervix; band of muscle, connecting the vagina to the uterus.
- Vagina; a muscular, hollow tube connecting the uterus to the external environment; the birth canal.
Vagina People's External Anatomy
- Vulva: the external female genitalia including the mons pubis, labia majora, labia minora, clitoris, and Bartholin's glands.
Tubal Ligation
- A surgical method of sterilization for AFAB individuals.
- The fallopian tubes are cut and tied, preventing the egg from reaching the uterus
Cervical Cancer and HPV
- HPV is a leading contributor to cervical cancer; some strains are more likely to cause cancer than others
- Early detection is important in cervical cancer.
- Pap test is a screening test that looks for abnormalities in cervical cells.
Oogenesis & Ovulation
- Oogenesis is the formation and development of a mature ovum (egg cell), taking place within follicles (structures) in the AFAB ovaries.
- A primary oocyte within the follicle undergoes meiosis to form a secondary oocyte and first polar body.
- The secondary oocyte is released = ovulation.
Oogenesis
- The formation of mature eggs in the AFAB body;
- Occurs in specialized structures called follicles found within the AFAB ovaries;
- Contains a primary oocyte.
- The process is part of the larger AFAB menstrual cycle.
- Granulosa cells, forming the wall of the follicle; nutrient supply.
Spermatogenesis cont.
- Detailed description of the process of spermatogonia, spermatocytes, and spermatids; where it takes place; and the function of Sertoli cells' role.
Spermatogenesis
- The process of producing mature sperm cells; takes place in the seminiferous tubules of the testes.
- Immature sperm cells divide and differentiate to become fully functional sperm cells; the role of Sertoli cells is critical.
Hormonal Reg. & The Menstrual Cycle
- The menstrual cycle (average 28 days)
- Follicular phase: follicle development and estrogen secretion;
- Ovulatory phase: release of egg, estrogen and LH peak;
- Luteal phase: progesterone secretion; preparation for pregnancy;
- Flow phase: shedding of the endometrium if no fertilization.
The Menstrual Cycle cont.
- Description of the four distinct phases of the menstrual cycle: flow, follicular,
ovulatory, and luteal phases, including associated hormonal changes and
effects on the endometrium.
- The detailed hormones, enzymes/reactions.
Hormone Summary of Cycle
- Detailed description of the hormones (estrogen, progesterone, LH, FSH, GnRH) controlling the menstrual cycle, how they work, their actions. and associated feedback loops.
AMAB Hormonal Feedback
- Interconnecting feedback systems maintain adequate sperm and constant testosterone levels.
- GnRH, FSH, LH, testosterone hormones levels impact sperm production;
- Secretion of inhibin by Sertoli cells.
Fetal Development 2nd Trimester
- Continued development of fetal organs during the second trimester.
- Growth and development of the fetus in more detail, including the length and weight.
- Appearance of soft hair (lanugo) fetal movement (quickening).
- The development of eyes, eyelids, eyelashes, and further changes in fetal development.
Fetal Development 3rd Trimester
- Continued growth and development of organs and systems (especially the lungs).
- The increasing size and weight of the fetus.
- An increase in the fat layer and potential changes in the physical appearance of the fetus.
Parts of the Reproductive System
- Detailed information and descriptions of the uterus's function.
- Detailed description(s) of the cervix's function.
- Detailed description(s) of the vagina's function.
Differences Between Reproductive Systems
- Summarize the key differences between the AMAB and AFAB reproductive systems (e.g., gamete production, sex determination, age of sexual maturity, hormonal regulation).
Menopause
- The natural cessation of the AFAB reproductive years, resulting from the depletion of functional follicles associated with the ageing of AFAB reproductive organs.
- Some potential connection(s) between the ageing of AFAB reproductive tissues and fertility in later stages.
Hormonal Feedback & Menstruation
- The hypothalamus and pituitary gland's role in regulating the production of AFAB sex hormones.
- FSH and LH hormones and their role in the cycle; different levels and implications.
- The hormone GnRH and its effect on the pituitary release of other hormones.
AFAB Hormonal Overview
- The detailed function(s) of specific hormones (estrogen, progesterone, LH, FSH) during the menstrual cycle.
- Describes the interactions between these hormones to maintain the cycle and control related processes.
AFAB Hormonal Feedback cont.
- Detailed feedback mechanisms in the AFAB system, affecting the cycle and regulating the levels of hormones.
- Positive and negative feedback loops controlling hormone levels (estrogen and progesterone)
Pregnancy Related Problems - Ectopic Pregnancy
- Implantation of a fertilized egg outside the uterus (e.g., fallopian tubes).
- The likelihood of a successful pregnancy, implications of ectopic pregnancy outcomes.
- Risk factors associated with ectopic pregnancies, for example, complications from infections (like chlamydia).
PRP - Breech Babies
- Breech presentation: fetal buttocks/feet presenting during birth.
- The various forms of breech presentation (complete, incomplete, frank).
- How doctors can try to correct breech presentation before birth (external cephalic version).
- Potential use of heat acupuncture on pregnant mothers' feet for breech correction.
PRP - Placenta Previa
- Placenta partially or fully covers the cervix, blocking vaginal delivery.
- Potential risks and complications if the previa persists.
- Diagnostic methods for placenta previa.
PRP - Cesarean section (c-section)
- Surgical delivery of a baby through incisions in the abdomen and uterus.
- Reasons for performing a cesarean section.
- The method of procedure.
- Possible complications and considerations related to the procedure
Summary of Parturition and Hormones
- Hormonal role and impact in parturition (e.g., oxytocin, relaxin).
- The role of progesterone change during parturition in facilitating a successful labour.
- The cause-effect association between parturition progression and uterine contractions/hormone influence.
Lactation
- Breast development related to estrogen and progesterone.
- Hormonal changes during pregnancy affecting milk production (lactation).
- The role of prolactin in stimulating milk production,
- The role of oxytocin in milk ejection and uterine contractions.
Changes after Pregnancy
- The hormonal changes after childbirth (e.g., decline in progesterone effect on the uterus, role of prolactin).
- Restoration of fertility after pregnancy for AFAB individuals.
Chorionic Hormone Production
- The role of the hCG hormone in maintaining pregnancy.
- The interaction between the implantation of the blastocyst to the uterus.
- The role of hCG in maintaining the corpus luteum (production of estrogen & progesterone).
Amnion Development
- The function of the amnion (e.g., insulation for the fetus).
- The development and function(s) of the yolk sac; its connection to the extraembryonic mesoderm.
- The role of the extraembryonic coelom in fetal development.
Placental Development
- The function of the placenta as an exchange organ in fetal development.
- How tissues form the placenta and its location.
- The exchange of gases and nutrients through the placenta.
- Its role in removing waste products from the fetus.
- The umbilical cord's connection to fetal development and delivery process.
Fetal Development Milestones Timeline
- A timeline to illustrate the stages of fetal development and important markers during the second and third trimesters.
- Key developments during different gestational periods (weeks) of fetal growth and growth development.
Fetal Development and Sex Determination
- The crucial role of the SRY gene for male (AMAB) sex determination, including the formation of Testes (male gonads) and the subsequent production of TDF affecting subsequent sex characteristic development.
- The differentiation process; time frame, related complications
- Related complications and outcomes arising from SRY gene variations or errors.
Effects of Environmental Agents
- The susceptibility to teratogens during different stages of fetal development.
- Identifying the problems that arise from teratogens exposure.
- The significance of maternal lifestyle (e.g., diet, health) on prenatal development.
Effects of Fetal Alcohol Syndrome (FAS)
- Describe the association between maternal alcohol consumption during pregnancy and the development of FAS, including both behavioral and physical aspects of the condition.
- Potential for neural effects on fetuses.
- Overall cost to society due to FAS.
Effects of Cannabis Consumption
- Risks associated with cannabis use during pregnancy.
- The potential for long-term developmental effects on the child.
Pregnancy and Birth (Parturition)
- The stages of childbirth (labour phases, role of hormones, including prostaglandins, oxytocin, relaxin).
- The role of the cervix during childbirth, and what hormones cause those effects
- A summary of the birth process, from labour to delivery and after.
Lactation
- Hormonal controls of milk production (lactation);
- Prolactin and oxytocin's function(s), and their relationship in milk production and ejection.
- Colostrum production; how it differs from milk.
Technology Related to Pregnancy
- Various technologies used in assisting pregnancy and reproductive health, including IVF, fertility drugs, IUI, amniocentesis, chorionic villus sampling, ultrasound, AFP testing, Rh factor incompatibility testing.
Different Technologies Associated with Pregnancy
- IVF and associated hormonal medicine procedures to improve egg or sperm production, including steps of procedures.
- IUI, a common procedure for infertility.
- Amniocentesis and Chorionic Villus Sampling (CVS), procedures for prenatal genetic diagnosis.
- Other technologies, like ultrasound and AFP testing, and their role in prenatal diagnosis and surveillance.
- Rh factor incompatibility testing and treatment strategies.
- Genetic counselling, and reasons for seeking it.
Pregnancy Related Problems
- Ectopic pregnancy, definition, causation, implications.
- Breech presentation, different types, potential interventions, risks, complications.
- Placenta previa, diagnosis, treatment considerations.
- Cesarean section, procedure, indications, possible risks.
Practice Questions
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Description
Test your knowledge on human reproductive biology with this quiz. It covers topics such as gametes, chromosome counts, the roles of reproductive organs, and key processes like oogenesis and fertilization. Ideal for students studying biology or human anatomy.
